PART V

EXPERIENCES WITH INTERNATIONAL, REGIONAL SUB- REGIONAL AND NATIONAL PROGRAMMES TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION AND MITIGATE DROUGHT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

-Experiences with sub-regional and national programmes to combat desertification and mitigate drought in the Southern African Development Countries (SADC) region
Presented by : Mr. B. Leleka, Office of the Environment and Land Management, Southern African Development Community (SADC)

- Experiences with sub-regional and national programmes to combat desertification and mitigate drought in the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) region Presented by : Ms. Fatou Ba, Counsellor, Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS)

-Experiences with sub-regional and national programmes to combat desertification and mitigate drought in Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) region
Presented by : Mr. Maina Karaba Abdessalem, Principal Engineer, Ministry of Environment, Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD)

- Drought Monitoring in the IGADD Region
Presented by : Mr. Njihia, Deputy Director of Meteorological Services

- Experience Gained by Technical Cooperation between Burkina Faso, CILLS, and Germany in the field of Natural Resources Management and Desretification Control : Patecore Project in Burkina Faso
Presented by : Dr. Helmut Wöhl, Principal Technical Advisor for Rural Development, GTZ, Germany

-Experiences with sub-regional and national programmes to combat desertification and mitigate drought in the Arab Magreb Union (UMA) region
Presented by: Mr. Mustafa Tlili, Advisor to Secretary-General, Arab Magreb Union (UMA)

- The Tunisian experience in combating desertification and its impacts
Presented by: Mr. Kallala Abdessalem, Principal Engineer, Ministry of Environment and Land Management, Tunisia

-The Algerian experience in combating desertification and its impacts
Presented by : Mr. Tewfik Abada, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Algeria

- The Yemeni experience in combating desertification and its impacts
Presented by: Mr. Mahmoud Shidiwah, Director of DC Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, Yemen

-The Saudi experience in combating desertification and its impacts
Presented by : Dr. Ali S. Altokhais, Head of Delegation, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

- The Jordanian experience in combating desertification and its impacts
Presented by: Mr. Batr W. Al-Qudah, Ministry of Agriculture, Amman, Jordan

- The Iraqi Experience in combating desertification and its imapacts
Presented by: Dr. Fadel 'Ali El Faragi, Chief of the Division on Desertification Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Iraq

- The Indian experience in combating desertification and its impacts
Presented by : Mr. Narayan Singil, India High Commission, Nairobi

- The Iranian experience in combating desertification and its impacts
Presented by : Mr. Mohamed Reza Djabbari, Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran

EXPERIENCES WITH SUB-REGIONAL AND NATIONAL PROGRAMMES TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION AND MITIGATE DROUGTH IN THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC) REGION

Presented by : Mr. B. Leleka, Office of the Environment and Land Management (SADC)

BACKGROUND

The critical environment and development parameters are essentially the complex interrelationships among people, resources and environment.

Our region has one of the fastest growing populations in the world. Equally relevant to securing sustainable development, as defined by the Brundtland Commission is to include special responsibility towards our children and future generations. This is particularly relevant to our region, which also has one of the youngest populations in world.

In 1989 the combined population of the ten SADC countries was 80 million of which 45% were under 14 years old. Half of SADC's total population lives in just two countries, Tanzania (24 million) and Mozambique (15 million). Four countries - Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland - have populations of less than 2 million. The other four SADC countries have 8-10 million people each.

Although more than two-thirds of SADC's population still live in rural areas, with an annual average growth rate of over 8% during the 1980s, our urban population growth rate is among the highest in the world. With urban growth rates of 10-11%, Botswana, Mozambique and Tanzania are the most rapidly urbanizing countries. In Zambia, nearly half the population already lives in urban areas. In 1990, an estimated one out of every three urban dwellers lived in their capital city, though this figure is likely to be even higher because of the difficulty of enumerating the large slum population in and around many capitals.

These figures and projections have significant implication for the character, pace and scale of SADC's transition towards desertification conscious development. Rapid population growth has already increased the pressure on the natural resources base, including fuelwood, grazing land for wildlife and livestock and arable land.

However, in bringing more land under cultivation through clearing or use of marginal areas, the prospects of increased deterioration and soil degradation also rise. Consequently, appropriate land and water management practices are now a necessity. Yet comprehensive data on the extent and rate of soil degradation and loss are scarce in the region.

The natural vegetation in SADC's region is predominantly open woodland, relatively dry savanna and dry wooded steppes. About 67% of the total area has woody vegetation of which 41% consists of open and closed forests. The remaining 33% consists of water, mountains and deserts.

The brief scenario sketched led SADC to find some common problems which the region faces. The common problems include:

i. Increased use of marginal lands for crops and grazing, due to population growth and pressure;

ii. Accelerating soil degradation and erosion due to inappropriate agricultural practices;

iii. Escalating deforestation due to growing needs for fuelwood, building materials, cropland and urban expansion;

iv. Expanding desertification due to overstocking, overgrazing and inadequate range management; and

v. Excessive sedimentation in rivers casing serious siltation of dams and reservoirs due to improper soil management.

Dealing effectively with these and many other problems will require tackling the underlying domestic and external causes of under development and population pressure.

SADC-ELMS experience since its establishment, in 1985, has been clear lack of awareness of the long term implications of over-exploitation of natural resources by local communities, lack of alternatives to this pattern of life and also lack of exchange of information on similar problems in other countries. As a result SADC developed a programme with the objectives of:

i. Exchanging relevant data, information, knowledge and know-how;

ii. Sharing relevant training and other technical facilities;

iii. Strengthening and building up relevant institutions and expertise; and

iv. Establishing and implementing joint field programmes.

LESSONS LEARNED IN THE SADC REGION

Some of the lessons learned in the SADC region show that:

i. The problem of excessive soil erosion and land degradation has its roots more in socio- economic conditions than adverse physical conditions. To succeed in combating desertification, measures taken should necessarily address physical, economic and socio-economic factors simultaneously;

ii. Desertification measures should be regarded as sustainable production systems rather than measures to stop the process only. This calls for the development of sustainable productive land management systems adapted to specific local conditions;

iii. Land degradation and its effects on the environment is one of the main development problems in the SADC region and must be carefully monitored;

iv. The concept of popular participation should be further developed to create models for a long term commitment by land users and communities in resource management. Local communities must be increasingly involved when implementing improved land management activities;

v. In order to carry out effective long term programmes and husbandry activities, closer links with and among relevant institutions and measures to strengthen them are needed throughout the Region.

EXPERIENCES WITH SUB-REGIONAL AND NATIONAL PROGRAMMES TO COMBAT DESERTFICATION AND MITIGATE DROUGHT IN THE PERMANENT INTERSTATE COMMITTEE FOR DROUGHT CONTROL IN THE SAHEL (CILSS)

Presented by : Ms. Fatou Ba, Counsellor, Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILLS)

INTRODUCTION

The Sahel stretches in a band across Africa, north of the Equator, from Senegal in the west to Somalia in the east. The CILSS countries cover an area of 5.5 million km2 in the western part of this band. Over the past twenty years, these countries' populations (an estimated 40 million people) have suffered, day by day, the effects of recurrent drought and progressive desertification.

The Sahel is going through a profound crisis, especially as regards the survival of its rural communities and the conversation of its natural resources. Against a particularly difficult and worrying economic background, the imbalance between the total land area suitable for agricultural and pastoral activities and the numbers of people and animals who live there is becoming ever more acute.

The Sahel suffers from every kind of dependence on the outside world: for food, energy, technology, finance etc.

By the year 2015, the CILSS member countries will have no less than 70 million mouths to feed. Will they be able to meet these food needs if current trends continue and the natural enviroment continues to deteriorate at the same pace?

Fortunately, the situation also has its bright side. There is great determination and resolve in the Sahel, there is the energy and tenacity of millions of men and women, whole communities fighting arduous battles against the encroaching desert.

DROUGHT, DESERTIFICATION AND THEIR EFFECTS

Characteristics

Climatic factors have had a determinant impact on the enviroment of the Sahel over the past twenty years, affecting the functioning of all its ecosystems. Recurrent droughts affecting the whole of the Sahel began in the later 1960s. Over the years, the isohyets have shifted southwards, reflecting a persistent climatic recession. The wet season has become shorter, with dry periods of varying length and intensity during the wet season itself and a very variable distribution of rainfall in time and space; these are now characteristic features of rainfall in the Sahel.

The degradation of tree cover and herbaceous vegetation has greatly accelerated, reflected in a sharp reduction or even disappearance of many species, particularly those that had established themselves in the northern Sahel during wetter periods. Alongside this, the productivity and nutritive quality of the biomass has declined sharply as natural regeneration has become increasingly difficult and uncertain.

In the northern Sahel, populations of bastard mahogany and red kapok tree have been decimated and species such as Andropogon gayanus have gradually disappeared. The natural formations of Acacia arabica on the flood plain of the Senegal river have shrunk considerably. Many wild plants can now only survive if they are cultivated.

In Senegal, this degradation is reflected in a regression of the vegetation of about 30% over the past thirty years; in Niger, 35-75% of the forests have disappeared in the past thirty-five years. Of the natural vegetation that covered 75% of the territory of Gambia, only 43% now remains, while in Guinea, 220,000 hectares of forest are said to have disappeared between 1979 and 1989.

Land degradation is becoming particularly obvious in farming regions and in the transitional zone between th pastoral northern Sahel and the predominantly agricultural Sudan zone to the south, where rainfall averages between 350 and 600 mm a year.

Wind erosion has set huge masses of sand on the move, transforming the Saharo-Sahelian zone into true desert. In Mauritania, of the 15,000,000 hectares considered to be unaffected by desertification at the time of independence, less than one million now remain. In Burkina Faso, according to interpretations of aerial photographs, the active dune in Corom Corom, which had quadrupled in size between 1956 and 1974, tripled in size between 1974 and 1977.

At the same time, water erosion has severely damaged Cape Verde and some parts of Burkina Faso, reaching as far as Niger. On the other hand, salinization does not seem to be an acute problem in Sahel, except along the southern coast of Senegal.

Broadly speaking, over this period, the Sahel has recorded persistent reductions in surface water and a significant fall in the level of its water tables: many springs have dried up, e.g. on the Mossi plateau in Burkina Faso, while stream systems, reservoirs and lakes have shrunk (e.g. Lake Chad and Lake Faguibine in Mali).

Causes and consequences

As in most developing countries where desertification is taking place, population growth in the Sahel, and the consequent increase in pressure on natural resources, are often regarded as important factors in environmental degradation.

The population of the Sahel has doubled in twenty-five years, rising from 18 million in 1960 to 36 million in 1986. Certainly, with this rapid population growth combined with recurrent drought and the weakened productivity and output recorded throughout the zone in recent years, meeting the food needs of the population has a negative impact on the natural environment. However, it must be acknowledged that the failure to systematically build up resources and the penury in which a large section of the population live are two major factors which have largely contributed to the degradation of resources.

The consequences of this degradation are only too well known, and will not be dwelt upon this paper. Recurrent drought and the degradation of natural resources have greatly contributed to the general decline in yields and incomes; the stagnation or indeed regression of the Sahelian economies; migration on an increasing scale; massive population displacements; inter- and intra-ethnic conflict; and accelerated urbanization which, taking place without any concomitant creation of jobs or alternative incomes, brings with it social tension, unemployment and insecurity.

NATIONAL RESPONSES

Strategy, planning and programs

Sahelian governments have launched a wide range of oprations to combat the effects of drought and desertification.

The earliest of these, written into national plans as priority operations, were aimed at ensuring food and energy security by developing agriculture, livestock farming, forestry, fisheries, hydraulic engineering works and/or energy projects, depending on the particularities of each country.

In this first phase, special attention was given to the management and rational use of food aid, and major investments were made in this sphere. Many projects were set up, mainly concerning increased production (of cereals especially), crop diversification, promotion of livestock production schemes, management and development of water resources, soil and water conservation, large-scale reforestation, dune fixing etc.

In view of the very modest results achieved by these projects despite the amount of capital mobilized and the supposedly high-performance techniques and technologies involved, this productive oriented and essentially sectoral approach was gradually abandoned in favor of a more integrated approach, more closely focused on the grass-roots level.

Starting in 1985 with the adoption of a regional desertification control strategy initiated by the CILSS, national desertification control plans (NDCPs) began to be drawn up in the Sahel countries. No longer seen merely as a forestry question, desertification control was now viewed from a more global and forward-looking perspective. Based on the specific features of each country and its development strategy, these plans diagnose the situation, define the broad strategic lines and outline the programs to be implemented.

The NDCP proposes operations incorporating all those already under way and those to be set up in each locality. It differentiates between the national, regional and local levels in the following programs:

i. Integrated development program (agriculture, livestock, fishery, forestry, parks, reserves, water resources, energy);

ii. Health program (depending on the country, this includes improvement of diet and nutrition, sanitation, pollution and nuisancee control);

iii. Program for integration of isolated areas;

iv. Population and development program;

v. Program to strengthen and develop research;

vi. Program on information and training, education and literacy;

vii. Program on legislation and statutes;

viii. Program on rationalization and strengthening of institutions.

This exercise was to constitute the first stage in an approach aimed, in the long term, at proper planning and coordination of all country-level desertification control activities and their integration into a coherent national development strategy.

The plan was difficult to launch, mainly because of the wide range of programs and plans being designed and implemented simultaneously in each country. Because most of the programs combined desertification control strands with natural resource management strands, application ran up against problems of coherence and coordination, duplication and overlap.

This explains the lack of progress in elaborating or updating the NDCP in some countries and the obstacles both in design and implementation of practical application programs and in the search for funding for specific projects.

Institutional and legal initiatives

Sustained efforts have been made in many countries, in recent years, to provide a more appropriate institutional enviroment for the fight against desertification. These efforts have the following characteristics:

I. Initiatives are increasingly varied in nature.

i. Previously, local communities were involved in government operations and projects only as labor-power to carry out specific tasks. But they have become increasingly aware that operations run on their lands require their full commitment and involvement; they have been playing an increasingly active part in desertification control, taking more and more initiatives themselves, with help from NGOs, extension services etc.

ii. Throughout the Sahel, organizations of all kinds are emerging in increasing numbers, setting up village woodlots, market garden schemes, planting hedges and windbreaks, etc. Exchange visits between villages or organizations and meetings to compare experiences are more and more common.

iii. At the same time, institutions have been reorganized and strengthened, structures specializing in specific aspects of desertification have been set up and responsibilities are increasingly being devolved to local communities or decentralized authorities.

iv. New instruments for coordination, collaboration and discussion are also being set up at the national, regional and local levels: technical monitoring and management committees, coordination teams, interministerial committees to reflect on the issue and impart impetus, etc.

II. Increased efforts are being made to inform, educate and raise awareness.

i. A whole range of activities has been undertaken to inform the people and raise their awareness of the different aspects of desertification and different control measures. Examples are the consciousness-raising billboards along the roadsides in many towns, and radio or TV broadcasts in different national languages.

III. Suggested legal reforms may begin to solve the problem of inappropriate legislation.

i. Given the difficulty of enforcing laws regarding land ownership and tenure, forestry, wildlife, etc. (loopholes in laws, complex procedures, contradictory laws etc.), many Sahelian countries have launched a process of reform and revision of existing laws (amendment of the Forestry Code in Senegal, reform of forestry laws and regulations in Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso, etc.).

Technical aspects

A very wide range of techniques is available in the Sahel for combatting the different vectors of desertification. Some that have now been sufficiently tested in the field are proving particularly useful and are likely to spread throughout the sub-region. These are often simple, effective techniques easy for local communities to master. In many cases they can be used in combination, meeting a variety of needs in communities that have to simultaneously combat desertification and fight for their own survival.

This applies to many soil and water conservation techniques (anti-erosion bunds, half-moon micro-catchments, stone lines, filter dams etc.) and biological conservation (grazing bans and natural regeneration, windbreaks and hedges, agro-forestry etc.).

Widely-used traditional techniques such as half-moon micro-catchments have the advantage of being within the reach of all farmers, and more extension work should be done to spread these practices. These two techniques are based on the same principle and could very well be used by individual farmers in all the laterite glacis and plateau areas of the Sahel, and for wet season irrigation.

As regards dune fixation, here too the most widespread techniques could usefully be developed further: grazing bans, plantation, assisted regeneration, wattle fences, building of "counter- dunes" and artificial dunes etc. Without going into detail, there have been encouraging results in Senegal, where coastal dune fixation by wattle fences and panels of Guiera senegalensis wood, with filao planted between the fences, are methods that are particularly significant and interesting for other parts of the Sahel. The same applies both to Cape Verde's water conservation techniques and the experience accrued in Mauritania, where inland dunes have been fixed the wattle fencing, "counter- dunes" and plantation of selected species. These techniques ought to be disseminated as widely as possible so that they can be used wherever they are suitable for local conditions.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CLISS

Landmark dates

i. September 1973: Creation of the CLISS (Permanent Inter-State committee for Drought Control in the Sahel whose member states are Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Chad, Gambia, Guinea- Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal);

ii. 1973: Creation of the United Nations Sahel Office which became the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office in 1977);

iii. 1976: Creation of the Club du Sahel;

iv. March 1976: Creation by the CILSS of a working group to draw up medium-and long-term development strategy for the CILSS Member countries. Strategy and program proposals were made for ten sectors: rainfall farming; irrigated farming; rainfed farming; livestock; fisheries; plant and crop protection; human resources; transportation and infrastructure; marketing; pricing and storage; appropriate technology; ecology and the environment;

v. January 1985: Twentieth Ordinary Meeting of the CILSS Council of Ministers at Nouakchott, and adoption of the Revised Strategy for Desertification Control and Development in the Sahel; and

vi. October 1991: CILSS International Symposium in Niamey on integration and evaluation of action related to desertification control/local-level natural resource managment in the Sahel.

Strategies and priorities

CILSS policy on drought and desertification has undergone significant changes over the years. The Committee was originally established to support Member States in their efforts to address the problems of drought and desertification in the subregion. Initially, it focused on organiziing and coordinating emergency food aid (1973-76). Then it was recognized that food aid was not a sustainable solution, however important it was for dealing with emergencies. The initial focus of the CILSS therefore shifted, and greater efforts were made to mobilize resources and implement programs at the national or regional levels to promote structural socio-economic development and the drive progress in specific sectors: farming, livestock, village water supply and forestry (1976-82).

The objective in this period was to focus everybody's efforts on rehabilitating the Sahelian economies, which had been seriously shaken by repeated droughts, and on setting the scene for economic recovery. The level of mobilization and solidarity in the international community in this period was quite exemplary.

Complex problems persisted, however. Learning from past experience, Sahelian governments expressed their commitment to a more global, more forward-looking approach in which desertification was considered as a fact of life. This heralded the beginning of a new phase in the fight against desertification in the Sahel. On th initiative of the CILSS, a regional strategy was drawn up and adopted in Nouakchott in 1984 to guide national policies and help countries in their strategic decisions. The Nouakchott strategy is based on:

i. total voluntary support from local population groups;

ii. a global approach to desertification control;

iii. integration of desertification control with land use planning;

iv. restructuring of national institutions and agencies and redefinition of their roles;

v. greater involvement by the research community, ongoing training and systematic follow-up; and

vi. consolidation and coordination of external aid.

The Nouakchott strategy was refined by the recommendations of the Segou benchmarks:

i. ecological rehabilitation: restore a degraded asset;

ii. local-level natural resource management: share responsibility with local communities;

iii. decentralized management: increase efficiency;

iv. land tenure: hedge local investments;

v. local credit and savings: increase local investment;

vi. women's participation: make it work;

vii. information and training: share experiences; and

viii. population and development: control the future.

In an effort to support the national policies implemented in different countries, the CILSS defined regional priorities on the basis of this strategy.

SCOPE OF ACTION AND ACHIEVEMENTS

CILSS initiatives so far have been as follows:

i. Its specialized institutions have conducted research programs and analyses and set up a system to monitor the physical enviroment and improve Sahelian management skills.

ii. It has launched regional initiatives, sectoral studies and global analyses as well as organizing discussions and consultation with a view to developing concerted approached on topics of regional importance.

iii. It has promoted inter-Sahelian support and assistance.

The Agrhymet center has set up networks to observe and gather data on agrometeorology and hydrology in all the countries. These networks use the WMO's World Weather Watch. The data are being applied in various ways to:

i. set up an early warning and information systems on the changes that take place from one season to the next in climate, rainfall, crops, pests and plant health, rangeland and water resources;

ii. conduct agro-climatic analyses to characterize the Sahelian climate;

iii. enable agricultural extension services to provide agro-meteorological advice to farmers,

iv. disseminate integrated cartography products combining physical and socio-economic data as part of a regional geographical information system; and

v. develop monitoring and diagnostic tools, which have brought significant progress in rainfed crop forecasting during the Sahelian cropping season.

The Agrhymet center has also installed the equipment needed to receive data from the NOAA/IIRPT and Meteosat/PNUS satellites. These data are correlated with field data and a number of products are systematically generated:

i. ten-day NDVI vegetation index maps in A1 format for each country and for the whole of the CILSS area (together with corresponding numerical data), which are sent to the national agencies;

ii. ten-day and monthly NDVI maps on all CILSS countries, produced in TIFF format and distributed with the center's ten-day newsflash and monthly newsletter;

iii. estimated rainfall distribution maps based on Meteosat data for all Sahelian countries, also distributed with the newsletters; and

iv. surface temperature maps based on NOAA or Meteosat data, also for the whole of the Sahel.

Between 1987 and 1991, the Agrhymet center also set up a standardized data base management system for regional and national data bases covering climatology, crops, plant health, hydrology and vegetation indices.

In 1991, a geographical information system was installe at the center with three data formats: Arc Info, Arc DBase and LAS. Digitized maps have been produced of administrative boundaries in the CILSS countries, the main catchment areas, and, for certain countries, soil types. In addition, agricultural land use maps are being generated from the different data bases.

The programs conducted by the Sahel Institute (INSAH), which initially focused on research into drought resistance and ways of improving the scientific capabilities of Member countries, are increasingly concentrating on studies and research projects aiming to improve understanding of interactions between resources, population and the environment.

Alongside these operational programs, the CILSS has provided Member countries with management training. Since 1975, a total of 374 managers (320 from the Sahel and 54 from the African countries) have obtained diplomas from the Agrhymet center in a number of disciplines (agro- meteorology, hydrology, instruments, plant protection). Eighty percent of the Sahelians who have received these diplomas are currently working on the Agrhymet program inside their respective national agencies. The technical potential needed for natural resource monitoring and management is thus available. These staff members provide follow-up for field networks as well as analyzing and interpreting data to provide early warning of crises or to help to boost agricultural production.

By developing regional activities, conducting global studies on specific subjects and organizing discussions at the national and regional levels, the CILSS has provided a coherent framework that can underpin and optimize national efforts, help to improve understanding of desertification control issues and favor the progressive harmonization of decision-making aids, policies, and so on.

With respect to energy issues, various initiatives have been taken at the regional level in an effort to reduce pressure on the Sahel's ligneous resources by promoting the use of improved cookstoves, butane gas and solar energy. These initiatives have had some positive results:

i. they have made a crucial contribution to moves to lighten the workload of the women;

ii. they have raised awareness of the limitations of the fuelwood solutions, despite the widespread distribution of improved cookstoves in the Sahel, and they have encouraged people to look at alternatives such as gas and solar energy;

iii. they have promoted the use of solar energy, which is an abundant resource in the Sahel. Efforts have focused on solar power (photovoltaic solar energy) for wells and for pumping water for irrigation;

iv. They have created a favorable environment for the use of butane gas in households by instigating pricing and fiscal policies that encourage the use of this energy source.

Efforts have been made to identify ways of starting to overcome the many obstacles to the development of the Sahelian livestock sector. Regional analysis of the livestock sector has pointed to the many consequences of peripheralization and forced sedentarization.

Current initiatives include the creation of a network to monitor Sahelian rangelands and the development of soil-improving forage species.

Environmental issues are now part of the curriculum in the Sahelian education system, and this initiative has gotten off to a promising start. A number of pilot establishments have been selected as models and catalysts. It is also considered vital that these efforts be backed by other initiatives outside the traditional education system, for example in literacy and mass education programs.

Inter-Sahelian support and assistance is the term used by th CILSS for its efforts to encourage its Member countries to exchange experiences. Even if Sahelian countries all face the same challenges, they all have specific characteristics and their experiences are often quite different. Mutual exchanges of knowledge and know-how can make action more efficient. Inter-Sahelian support and assistance involves training courses and trips, short-term assistance from Sahelian experts, the coordination of a network that brings together the different players at all levels, publication and dissemination of newsletters, books, etc.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Progress has been made in desertification control in the Sahel. A process has been set in motion and the momentum that has been achieved must be maintained. There is clear evidence that a large number of initiatives have worked in many areas. This experience must be built upon and strengthened. Successful initiatives must be consolidated and repeated as widely as possible.

Future action should have the following main objectives:

i. create the environment needed to repeat successful experiences wherever local conditions are suitable;

ii. help the Sahel to rediscover its primary vocation, which is pastoral;

iii. highlight the importance of the role played by women;

iv. strengthen efforts to raise awareness of desertification control and extend those efforts to ensure they reach the highest levels of society so that errors of appreciation can be avoided; and

v. include discussion of population problems in ongoing environmental education programs and extend those programs to other sections of society through existing literacy programs.

This list is clearly not exhaustive. Its sole aim is to invite discussion on vital topics that often tend to be considere of secondary importance.

Finally, current discussion by CILSS Member countries on land tenure and decentralization deserve particularly close attention and continued support. They are being conducted in a context of broad consultation and therefore have a good chance of identifying sustainable solutions.

EXPERIENCES WITH SUB-REIGONAL AND NATIONAL PROGRAMMES TO COMBAT DESRETIFICATION AND MITIGATE DROUGHT IN INTERGOVERNMENTAL AUTHORITY ON DROUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT (IGADD) REGION

Presented by : Mr. Maina Karaba Abdessalem, Principal Engineer, Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD)

BACKGROUND

For the purpose of this report, IGADD subregion means the area covered by the six countries of the HORN of Africa viz: Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda who are members of the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development. The IGADD sub-region represents one of the marginal regions of the world in terms of rainfall available for natural vegetation growth and crop production. It is an area of 4,895,280 km2 i.e. not including area covered by water (Table I), encompassing the Eastern African highlands, the source of the Nile, the two branches of the Great Rift Valley and the Eastern limits described by the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Its northern limits include semi arid and arid lands going into Sahara desert. While it is the poorest region on earth, not least because of absence of mineral oil and steel, both human and natural forces have conspired to further impoverish it. The most obvious manifestations have been periodic droughts and the scourge of desertification that have consigned millions to perpetual poverty and squalor.

INTRODUCTION

This Report presents an overview of the status and changes of land based resources and land use as they relate to the experiences gained so far in combating desertification within the IGADD subregion. Other aspects considered in the report include socio-economic concerns in demography, agricultural practices and the livestock industry. The report also presents a brief analysis and evaluation of data and information quality, the institutional and policy framework, the basis of adoption of scientific and technological innovations, together with IGADD's views on the impacts of these aspects in desertification control.

While subscribing to the definition adopted in Agenda 21, IGADD has presented a slightly different perspective to the issues of desertification as a result of the experiences gained from the programmes and projects that have been undertaken to combat desertification and to ameliorate the effects of drought.

Throughout the report fragile areas in the subregion are referred to as arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), and that is where the effects of drought and desertification are most prominent. However, there is often a close relation between the environment of the more humid areas of the subregion and the ASALs. ASALs cannot therefore be seen in isolation but in other national and subregional environmental contexts. While we are in agreement with the view that desertification is a result of natural, structural and human causes, the experiences gained in the subregion lead one to conclude that it is a multifaceted function of a host of other variables often related but impossible to present as one effectively. For the purpose of this report, subregional observations and conclusions are highlighted under each topic discussed.

OBJECTIVES

Conclusions drawn on the failure of various interventions in the arid and semi arid lands have compelled IGADD to add another dimension to the way this phenomenon has been viewed for a long time. The indicators and the responses to desertification and drought by both the international community and the affected populations have tended to overlook the precise nature of the phenomenon from both its internalities and externalities. Internal in that the interventions were designed as timed quick technological fixes. External in that the interventions are directly or indirectly linked to international policies of economics and technology. Not surprising therefore, the most obvious conclusion has been that dryland management in Africa is a difficult if not an impossible proposition. IGADD does not subscribe to this grossly pessimistic view since it is known that at the peak of their plight, during 1968/73 and 1984/85 drought spells and famine crises, a great portion of the food aid brought into these areas was produced in similar arid, semi arid, and sub humid lands in USA and Australia where physiographic features are not much different form those in this region. IGADD's conviction is that though the lands in the subregion are arid and semi arid, this should not necessarily mean that poverty and hunger should perpetually abound.

While this paper is primarily intended to present an overview of the status of experiences, issues and future approaches in combatting desertification and mitigating the effects of drought in the subregion, it will also:

i. Provide negotiable elements as an input in the formulation of the interntional convention on drought and desertification;

ii. Sensitize member states of IGADD and the international coummunity on the need to develop appropriate policies and strategies to combat drought and desertification; and

iii. Encourage member states and the international community to reorentate to the new challenges in combatting drought and desertification in order to ensure sustainable development taking into account the tenets of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21.

STATE OF DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION

Physical Elements and Climate

The climatic regions of the IGADD subregion range from dry desert and steppe climates to tropical and highland climates. Around 60 per cent of the region has a mean annual rainfall below 600 mm, i.e. belongs to the hyper-arid, arid and semi-arid zones. The region is affected by different rainfall regimes, i.e. bimodal and unimodal, as well as different length and timing of the rainfall seasons.

The regional time series for the drylands of Eastern Africa when presented indicate that several dry periods have occurred during this century. Different ethnic communities have appropriately named different periods of drought and famine. Indeed this nomenclature has been extensively used by social anthropologists in estimating times and events. 1910-1914, 1940-1944, 1967, 1973-1974, 1984, and 1990 have been known to be drought years in Eastern Africa. During the last two decades the amount of rainfall has been below the long term annual average (1941-70 used as the reference period) with a culmination in the 1982-84 drought episode. Climate in general, and rainfall in particular, are very important in the studies of the relationship between dryland degradation, sustainable production and economic development. Long-term rainfall records in Africa suggest that with both high inter-seasonal, interannual and interdecadal variability longer base lines should be used than currently provided by thirty-year averages.

Records on climate variables in the IGADD countries are of variable quality, with uneven geographical distribution. Many recording stations have also interrupted time series, making interpretations difficult. Records are also not long enough, and understanding of the weather systems affecting the sub-region is insufficient to allow for predictions as to recurrence, timing and duration of drier and wetter periods. From a meteorological point of view a prudent prognosis is to assume continued low rainfall totals, and yet anticipate periods of increased precipitation. A medium-scale farmer in Kenya concurs with this prognosis in his observation "... that rains have become unpredictable and planting seasons confused ... Climatic changes have affected farming as for a number of consecutive years there has been a gradual drop in production."

A number of models of global warming as a result of the "Greenhouse Effect" have suggested that Eastern Africa may, in future, experience higher annual temperatures and less ranfall than at present. If this observation is correct, it has serious implications for the climate of the IGADD subregion, where the ASALs are already subjected to conditions unfavourable to plant growth, particularly crop plants. Melaku Worede, an Ethipian plant geneticist, has suggested the prudence of planning breeding programs for this eventuality. From the results of research into the investment policy implication of climate change in Kenya a team of Kenyan scientists observed mean temperature increase of 0.45 degrees celsius for the last 15 years. That scenario suggests that tourism which is a major industry in Kenya is likely to suffer from reduced wildlife distribution and production and a possibility of submerged coastal areas together endangering all the existing tourism infrastrucutral investments. Land use strategies to accomodate such extremities may be prudent. Unfortunately there are no current IGADD subregion plans for these eventualities of climate change, a case common with most other countries worldwide. This scenario is alarming given that the possible impacts of global warming to Kenya are not entirely different form other countries of the IGADD subregion.

Water resources

Shared important water resources between the IGADD member countries are the Nile basin (Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya), Lake Victoria (Uganda and Kenya), Lake Turkana (Kenya and Ethiopia), Juba and Shebele rivers (Ethiopia and Somalia), Lake Abee (Ethiopia and Djibouti) and the coastal waters of Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia and Kenya. Other African and Arabian countries are close neighbours to these resources.

For the IGADD sub-region ASALs freshwater resources are of great importance, for human consumption, for watering of livestock and for irrigation. Unfortunately most of the freshwater resources in each country are not in the ASALs but the more humid areas, although rivers may transport the water into ASAL areas for example the Blue and White Niles, Tana, Nzoia, Awash. IGADD has therefore delineated all the watersheds in the subregion and intends to coordinate watershed management programs. Rough estimates of freshwater resources in the sub-region are presented in Table 4.

The utilization of surface and groundwater for production purposes in the ASAL areas is not without difficulties. This problem is described in detail in most country reports. The establishment of watering points in dry-season grazing areas increases the grazing pressure to levels that may not be sustainable, and may cause soil erosion. Where water storage is in open dams, siltation often reduces their capacities. The experience with large-scale irrigation schemes in IGADD ASAL areas is also variable. The high rates of evapotranspiration in ASALs imply severe management problems in order to avoid salinization, alkalization and waterlogging, calling for infrastructure and skills that are not always available.

Forests and woodlands

Forests and woodlands cover around 19% of the subregion (Table 2) and of that around 2% is closed forest and around 17% is open forest (Table 3). Uganda and Ethiopia have the largest forest and woodland resources when expressed as per cent of the country area, whereas Sudan has the largest resources when expressed as total area (Tables 1 and 2). Closed forest area constitute a minor part of the total forest and woodland area with Uganda and Ethiopia as the countries with the highest percentage closed forest cover (around 4%). The highest rate of deforestation within the IGADD countries is found in Sudan when expressed as area unit (104,000 ha per year) and in Kenya when expressed as per cent (1.7% per year). The rate of reforestation is generally very low in all IGADD member states and in all available reports there are indications that deforestation is of major concern. The loss of habitats, genetic resources, and associated wildlife, in addition to dwindling fuelwood and building material sources, are compounded by a general progression from forestland to cropland, a well-known consequence of agricultural development world-wide.

Rangelands

The term rangelands usually denotes those areas of natural pastures grazed on an extensive basis as well as improved and permanent pasture land. Quantitative data on the extent of rangelands area are difficult to obtain since this class often is included in other land use and vegetation classes. Standardized classification, followed by comprehensive monitoring and assessment of the rangelands are therefore needed. Permanent pasture, i.e. land used for five or more years for forage, occupies around 28% of the subregion. Somalia and Ethiopia have the highest percentage of the class, slightly less than half, whereas the largest area of permanent pastures is to be found in the Sudan (Table 1). Note that absence of a trend in permanent pasture area in Table 1 may not reflect actual conditions) but indicates differences in land classification and data reporting.

A rough estimate of permanent pasture within the IGADD member countries is given in Table 1 and comprises about 28% of the total area.

The expansion of cultivation at the expense of other traditional uses of rangelands is occurring at an increasing rate, but accurate quantitative data are lacking. The rangelands are also threatened by degradation and bush encroachment, but the lack of reliable statistics are once again a constraint. The rangelands constitute the main source of fodder for livestock. Changes in plant species composition as a result of weather changes and/or management practices such as overgrazing, may have significant impact on the productivity of the rangelands. There have been several suggestions that the general improvement in the rangelands that followed the return of the rains in 1985 have been in biomass of poor nutritional value "the green desert syndrome.

There have been changes in species composition and, as amply demonstrated, the question is whether we are witnessing a natural succession of pioneer species that eventually will lead to a restoration of the original flora given normal weather conditions. Reports from highly marginal areas, such as the Red Sea Hills of the Sudan and from Djibouti, suggest that the grass cover is severely depleted and that there are few young browse trees.

Wildlife and habitats

Biological diversity has steadily decreased mainly due to habitat loss (Table 6). It is estimated that approximately 70% of the original habitats of the subregion have been lost and that only 1.8% of the subregion is protected (Table 7). Some of the arguments raised for maintaining natural habitats and thereby biodiversity are: they contribute to climatic stability, prevent soil erosion, stabilize surface water run-off, offer unique harvestable resources and conserve soil fertility. Other arguments are the indirect economic use of the biodiversity in tourism and as genetic resources for use in plant breeding and biotechnology. More ethical arguments are that all forms of life should be conserved, and that the present generations have an obligation to preserve the gene-pools for future generations, i.e. that life is held in trust by each generation.

Discussions held with various people in the subregion during the compilation of this report indicate, concern for the lack of universal IGADD member state subscription to conventions such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) together with lack of implementation and policing of any ratified convention. similar concerns were voiced about The Law of the Sea Convention and its use to protect marine resources. In general there was a concern about the implementation and follow-up of various conventions in the field of environment. Many pointed to the enormous potential inherent in wildlife conservation for tourism, which only Kenya has tapped so far. Foreign currency earnings and off-farm employment creation in rural ASAL are important incentives for wise wildlife management, both at national and local levels. Maintenance of wildlife habitats is normally equivalent to high levels of environmental protection. A general awareness and appreciation of this in the local population has been achieved, for example in Kenya through efforts by Wildlife Clubs, East Africa Wildlife Society and other NGOs in environment, as well as the Kenya Government.

The IGADD ASAL harbour large areas of potentially valuable environments where the attractions of wildlife combined with exposure to the folklore of traditional land use practices have a clear appeal to foreign visitors, and thereby are capable of generating income for local and national sources. Subregional cooperation in the utilization of this resource may enhance national capabilities.

Cropland

Cropland, including temporary fallow land, covers the subregion by around 8%. Uganda has the highest percentage of cropland by nearly one third as well as the highest percentage increase in cropland since the 1960s. The major areas of cropland are to be found in Ethiopia and Sudan (Table 1). Of the previous mentioned classes, 30% is classified as wilderness areas, i.e. land without evidence of settlements and larger than 4,000 square kms (Table 2).

It is noted that the absence of a trend in permanent pasture area may not reflect actual conditions, but indicates differences in land classification and data reporting. Whilst the national report data sets frequently show other actual figures than the standardized WRI data, the trends are the same. This calls for the need of data and information harmonization and standardization to broaden their use in subregional interventions.

In all IGADD countries (including Djibouti where the actual areas involved are very small) there has been a clear increase in cropland over the 20 years period. The increase in cropland is, however, smaller than the increase in total yields of agricultural crops, indicating that increased food production has partly resulted from forest land being converted to cropland, and partly by increased yields, either from cereals, tubers or both, or been supplemented by food imports. For the last two years the subregion has reported increased food production although not commensurate with the population increases.

PRIORITY ISSUES

Degraded Lands

The major part of the subregion, 45%, was in 1983-85 classified as "other land", i.e. uncultivated land, grassland not used for permananet pasture or forage, built-up areas, wetlands, wastelands, and roads. The major parts of Djibouti and Kenya belong to this land class whereas Sudan has the largest area of the class (Table 2).

There is a lack of reliable statistics on degraded land with respect to status, rate of change and hazards. Much of this uncertainty is related to the very definitions of land degradation, desertification, and desertification hazards. It remains true, however, that comparative data are very hard to obtain. Standardized monitoring and assessment of land degradation is therefore urgently needed (see also UNCOD Recommendation 1,1977). General accepted definitions of desertification and land degradation are also required since different figures on degraded land arise due to different definitions. It is likely that many previous and widely accepted statements on dryland degradation and desertification in this part of Africa are based on incomparable data sets (see for example Nelson, 1988; Warren and Andrew, 1988; Hellden, 1988; UNSO, 1990, Bie, 1990).

The desertification hazard map presented by FAO/UNESCO in 1977 is of limited value since it is a hazard map and not a status map. (The significance of this has largely been overlooked in the public debate.) The accuracy of the hazard map has also been questioned, as much of the basic data is derived from a very generalized one to a million soil map of the world. However, according to the hazard map all areas of the IGADD subregion with 100 to 600 mm rainfall, i.e. arid and semi-arid areas, are at risk of desertification, around 50% of the subregion. The areas of high degree of desertification hazards constitute approximately 8% of the subregion. Areas with more than 600 mm of rain are not regarded to be at risk of desertification since the term desertification is by FAO/UNESCO used only for land degradation in drylands. However, the process of land degradation is of course active in both drylands and in the more humid areas, above 600 mm.

Personal communication and all reports indicate serious land degradation in all countries, although the situation in Uganda is probably less serious than in the other five countries. These views are similar to the general response by governments to the UNSO (1990) questionnaire. Quoting a variety of sources, national reviews and including surveys done by the World Bank (Somalia) and IUCN (Ethiopia), serious dryland degradation is reported form all ASAL areas in the IGADD subregion.

The reports of dryland degradation (or desertification) largely relate to the situation in 1989/90, following a period of some recovery from a low point in 1984/85 (although Somalia seems to have had a less severe drought than the other IGADD countries in the first half of the 1980s). In Djibouti there are clear differences of opinion among scientists consulted, although generally they clearly perceive serious land degradation. From the Sudan the report is clearly colored by the tremendous impact of the drought culminating in 1984/85. Uganda's ASAL situation may be a little different, in that political instability and serious cattle rustling have reduced both human and livestock populations greatly in the drier areas, allowing for some landscape recovery from the dry years. Civil strife and out migration in the northern ASAL areas of Ethiopia and Somalia have similarly affected land degradation there. In Kenya there has been significant economic investment through international development assistance in ASAL areas combined with changes in land ownership (subdivision of big ranches), but large population increases and growing livestock herds have constituted mounting pressure on the drylands.

Informed observers, applying normal scientific criteria, are generally skeptical about the statistics on land degradation and desertification in the IGADD subregion presented both by national and international sources. Data collection methodologies are usually poorly defined, definitions are unclear, quantitative data are scarce and time-series are short in relation to climatic variability.

What remains overwhelmingly clear, however, is that the productivity of the IGADD ASAL areas in the 1990s falls short of the level required both to maintain elementary human nutritional standards as defined by WHO and FAO, and to maintain the social and cultural integrity of traditional land use practices, particularly those of the pastoralists. At the same time, IGADD sees few signs of a general "desert encroachment", although moving sand may cause local problems (e.g. in Somalia and the Sudan). While, the problem of insufficient productivity of the IGADD ASALs is obvious, there are good reasons to believe that permanent damage to the drylands has not taken place and that there is scope for improvement.

The IGADD ASALs appear not to have lost their resilience. Investment in these lands could make economic sense albeit under high natural uncertainty. This is contrary to the conclusions by some development agencies who are pessimistic about their economic and ecologic performance.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES:

Population

In 1989, over 120.6 million people inhabited the subregion, with the highest density in Uganda and the lowest in Somalia (Table 10).

The per cent growth rate within the subregion was estimated at 3.17% for the 1985-1990 period. The population growth rates in the ASAL areas of IGADD are probably lower than both the national averages and the overall IGADD average of 3.17%. IUCN (1989) estimates the growth rate here to be around 2.7%, in itself a high figure in a global context, although lower than frequently quoted general figures. Traditional social practices, combined with high infant mortality, tend to lower growth rates in the drylands. WHO has reported increased incidence of malaria and AIDS in the subregion.

Although some agencies (including the World Bank) are reported to be revising their population growth estimates downwards as a result of this, reliable figures have not been issued for the IGADD ASAL areas.

Increased population pressures on the drylands that intensify desertification therefore come form two sources: local population growth and inflow of population surplus form more fertile areas for example in Kenya. Against this is increasing rural to urban migration which is strong in all IGADD countries except Uganda.

Many donors may in the future include such policies as prerequisites for some types of assistance, in line with UN general policy. The population issue is very relevant in environmental protection of the IGADD drylands. Many IGADD governments will probably develop population policies aimed at reducing the population growth, and thereby concur with the recommendations of several UN agencies and major international donors.

Urbanization

During the last three decades there was a general trend towards greater increases of urban population relative to rural population, and this trend is expected to continue (Table 11). The countries with the highest percentage of estimated urban population in 1990 are the countries with the highest percentage of drylands. (Djibouti and Somalia). Some international organizations, including the World Bank, are currently revising their policies on urbanization. The potential for economic growth in urban areas, particularly in smaller countryside towns, is regarded by many as significant.

However, IGADD member states have variable policies on urbanization, some favoring active discouragement of rural-urban migration (Kenya), others having developed policies for growth of dense settlement areas (Ethiopia). In respect to land degradation, a careful balance of these policies has to be evolved and will have to include job and income generation to reduce the pressure on land. While at subregional level we cannot conclude that the growth in population of urban centers is a direct response to environmental degradation alone, migration due to drop in income levels, lack of social services, unemployment, changes in occupation, local disputes and conflicts in the rural areas are some of the factors that encourage influx to towns.

Refugees

The IGADD subregion has more refugees than any other comparable area in the world. Yet these countries (Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda) are among the lowest income developing countries who are refugee sources, sanctuaries or both. War, civil strife, political unrest and famine have created what currently is the largest refugee problem in the world, amounting to approximately 2.5 million people. At 1989 estimate (which is quite low), this figure represented approximately 2% of the total subregional population. Refugees, whether registered by the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) or not, in addition to constituting a formidable humanitarian challenge, also present a major environmental problem. Often spontaneously occupying marginal ASAL areas at high population densities, they compete with the local population for land, water and energy.

Whilst waiting for political solutions, the environmental impact of any IGADD member country hosting a large number of refugees is both alarming and disastrous. A typical example that illustrates the magnitude and seriousness of the situation is given below.

Estimates of rural wood consumption in a typical ASAL area indicate that the annual wood requirement for a family of five for hut construction and cooking is 3.1 m3 per head. Assuming that the consumption of refugees would be modest and reduce it to half the normal consumption, a cap of four thousand refugees would require approximately 30 0000 m3 annually. The standing volume of wood in most ASALs is estimated to be about 50 m3 per ha. which implies that the typical camp of 4 000 refugees would deplete 600 ha. in the first year of establishment and 100 ha. annually thereafter! In and around refugee camps, ecosystems have been cleared of all trees and shrubs and the destruction of the surrounding woody vegetation progresses at a rate that could confirm the above estimates. In fact the inhabitants of a 4-5 year old camps have to walk for several hours to find trees and shrubs to cut.

IGADD has noted this problem in its strategy to combat desertification and has been seeking ways to link refugee programs with overall subregional programs. IGADD wishes to consider subregional efforts to lessen the environmental impact of refugees, probably in cooperation with UNHCR and major NGOs.

Fuelwood

The most important forest products are still regarded to be commercial products, which may be divided into fuelwood (charcoal and firewood) and industrial roundwood (Table 3). Ethiopia and Kenya have the highest production of fuelwood with 36,132,000 m3 and 30,874,000 m3, respectively per year in 1984-86. The demand for wood and fuelwood in all countries is steadily increasing with the increase in population while the supply of wood follows the opposite trend (IGADD, 1992). It is noted that production between 1974-76 and 1984-86 doubled.

The shortage of fuelwood is the most important energy related problem for the subregion since as much as 90% of the population uses fuelwood for cooking. Only in Ethiopia are there significant amounts of hydro-electric power available, with growing production in Kenya. Djibouti, with a large urban population, derives most of its energy form petroleum products and electricity (84%).

In the available reports from the countries of the region, growing shortages of fuelwood and building materials are described. The shortages appear most severe in Somalia and Sudan, but even a forest rich country like Uganda experience problems. Growing shortages are closely linked to growing populations and urbanization. The problems are both local and national in nature: local in that the walking distances to collect firewood (mainly done by women) are increasing, and national in that commercial small-scale and large-scale production of charcoal depletes larger areas. Since charcoal often constitutes an easily marketable commodity, the growing cash economy encourages its production, often with little or no environmental cancer.

Projects, often externally financed, to produce fuelwood form plantations, woodlots and cooperative schemes, whilst often well-intended, appear not to have made a major impact on the fuelwood situation. The ownership-of-tree issue is complex, with traditional communal rights conflicting with project desires to create personal incentives for wood production. Community woodlots have met the same problem of neither tree ownership nor usufructuary rights of the owners.

The fuelwood energy crisis in IGADD member states is a matter of major environmental concern. Efforts to supply more fuelwood and wood for building materials, combined with more rational charcoal production and fuel-efficient stoves, have so far made but modest impact. Alternative energy sources (wind, solar power) require investment and purchasing power currently beyond the scope of most citizens. A further depletion of the tree cover is likely during the coming years.

IGADDs experience and opinion deviates slightly from the commonly accepted belief that the agent and beneficiary of desertification control is the local producer in contact with the resource. Focus on consumption patterns of the consumer becomes important. Effective desertification control implies more production and cheap fuel source or the consumer. As the IGADD populations spend more on food and fuel the resulting saving might enhance their living styles thereby encouraging a shift to cleaner fuels that are not wood based. In addition, fuel efficient stoves reduce the total demand for wood based fuels and reduce deforestation. Considering the wood requirement for building materials, an intervention to substitute them with other locally available materials such as bricks becomes prudent. Both consumers and producers are the ultimate beneficiaries of desertification control and major focus should be on both.

Food Security

Cropland, i.e. land under temporary and permanent crops, temporary meadows, market and kitchen gardens, and temporary fallow land, covers 8% of the subregion (Table 11). Although global food production has increased over the past 20 years and is sufficient to feed the people of the world, the number of hungry people is growing. Per capita food production has increased in all regions except Africa despite Africa's increase in food production. This pattern is also in general valid for the IGADD subregion (Table 12).

Total yields of cereals in the IGADD ASAL areas were probably at their lowest in 1983-84, with considerable increases in 1986, 1987 and 1988, partly due to increased area under crops, partly due to better yields/ha with improved precipitation. Statistics for 1989 are scanty but point to variable yields.

In all IGADD states there is a tendency to invest in agriculture even where physiographic conditions do not allow the practice. The ultimate solution to the fragile lands problem is to raise the productivity of the high potential lands. In this way the region could pull away off the agriculture from the fragile lands. All factor being favorable, a large agricultural surplus would create a high rate of economic development, employment, and specific development projects that benefit the vulnerable groups. However rural poverty and desertification can not be solved by agriculture alone. Technology of production to lower the cost of production to the producer, hence lower cost to the consumer enlarges the market. An enlarged competitive market should generate wealth and income which make economic sense rather than expanding the production area.

Livestock

Livestock constitute the main source of food, capital and cash income for the pastoralists of ASAL and an important asset for agro-pastoralists. IGADD livestock production has been on the decline for the last 10 years mainly due to diseases, shortage of water and deterioration of natural pastures. Subregional ASALs have sustained periodic shocks in form of droughts with variable responses. While indicators of productivity, carrying capacity and resilience continue to be debatable, the pastoralists are moving farther and farther, getting less and less. There is also a preferential shift from cattle to smaller livestock and camels. More recent data, indicate significant increases in national herds, for example in Somalia, with particular sharp rises in small livestock (goats and sheep). In some areas increased disputes and local conflicts have been observed as pastoralists and agro- pastoralists concentrate along riverain and flood plains. Statistics on national herds are notoriously unreliable, but may be a little better where a significant proportion of herds is available for export.

As a result of periodic droughts and desertification, and intensified by civil strife and local conflicts, large out-migration from the ASALs and concentration of populations in small urban centers has created a class which is vulnerable, destitute and permanently relying on famine relief. It erroneously confirms the notion that equates marginal lands with poor people and poverty. Research has shown that with management and inputs, the IGADD ASALs could sustain three times the present livestock population. That goal can only be achieved when there is willingness to allocate resources to these areas.

Data and Information Quality

The information presented in this report has been derived from the country and recent international reports available at IGADD. There are, however, major discrepancies between nationally collected data, both in terms of data definitions and data reliability. A more detailed description of the status of the environment within each IGADD member country is to be found in the report prepared by IGADD and the member states while formulating the subregional strategy to combat desertification. These data sets are relatively consistent within countries, although recent statistics may not always have been available to all the personnel compiling the reports. However, inter-country comparisons may be more tentative if based on national data alone. For subregional comparison, national data sets have been supplemented by the standardized data sets from the World Resources Institute (WRI, 1989), as well as those from IUCN(1989).

The information base is too limited in all countries of the Sahelian region, and the existing documentation is weak and often unreliable. The amount of available information is diffusely scattered in different institutions, most of it outdated, in various scales and for different purposes. In most cases the country surveys are concentrated on the high potential areas which are promising quick returns. Indeed, one basic problem that confronts most of the policy makers, planners, researchers, project formulators, etc. in the ASALs is the lack of specific information when required. Therefore the need for research, geographic information systems networks and training remains urgent.

It is IGADD's feeling that at the onset of creating an Environmental Information System, a careful discrimination and scope of information should be established. In this respect choice of data type, method of collection, analysis, and presentation should be related to how the information will be used in policy-making or resource management. Meaningful analysis and updating should be done through dialogues between the information system mangers and users.

Institutional and Policy Framework.

Since 1978, the issue of drought and desertification has been heard more through international aid agencies and NGOs efforts for funds for projects than form the national government themselves. The result has been frequently a mosaic landscape of donor project activities that the recipient countries are not aware of let alone able to coordinate. At a subregional level the issue becomes more complex with mistakes and failures in one country repeated systematically in the others. The resources allocated for subregional development are wasted on duplication of efforts and thin spreading. Even the maximum utilization of the existing institution is further impeded by absence of proper coordination.

There is a general agreement that desertification control interventions in the subregion have been a disappointment to both the recipient and the donor. Like any other failures in evolution of a technology, it gives rise to a legion of terminologies, consultants, NGOs, imagined and real causes of failure and prescriptions. It yields a number of reports, papers and proposals for change, the latest that emerge from official sources. The donors blame the recipients of, among others, poor governance, uncoordinated policies, red tape, corruption, marginalisation of women etc. The recipients point to rigid funding mechanisms and conditionalities that erode the effectiveness of funds allocated for desertification control. Arguments and counter arguments have neither assisted nor discouraged serious development actors in the subregion.

The UN System led by UNDP/UNSO, Multilateral and Bilateral agencies and NGOs have intensified their activities in ASALs development. We attribute it to the conviction and realization that there are hopes for recovery and possibilities of economic growth since the physico-biological prerequisites are present. The need for harmonized Natural Resources Strategic Frameworks to guide their policies become imperatives. So, whilst all the prerequisites for recovery and development of ASALs are present, the challenges the socio-economic and institutional policies of national governments remains formidable.

During the preparation of this report we are of the opinion that a failure in desertification control projects cannot be blamed on any of the parties. Failures are attributed to conceptual weaknesses in that they avoided the process nature of the problem and its solutions. The most successful projects are often those which allow the work and its goals to evolve over several years, resisting demands that tangible results be achieved by fixed targets (Arnold Pacey,1992). Consequently, the perceived failures could be development experiences important for the process.

Science and Technology Transfer.

There is a general agreement that most of the interventions in ASALs have had discouraging results. At a subregional level we take interventions in terms of projects and programs as vehicles for subregional cooperation in technology transfer, human resources development, and institutional building. There should be an element of added value in subregional cooperation, with participating counties deriving mutual advantage in research information exchange, training and project networking. Interventions in the ASALs should therefore be considered in the broad context of technology transfer in addition to the financial resources infused from outside.

Science and technology transfer/transplant presupposes the existence of an enabling environment as precondition for its diffusion and acceptance. It entails clarity in definition, basic information, and existence of the root technology, and means of technology transmission. Most of these are missing in the IGADD ASALs. The most glaring deficiency in the subregion is poor communication infrastructure development. Although much progress has been made since the early 1960s, much remains to be done. It is noted that the communication axes were built during colonial times to connect and facilitate the drain of raw materials from the hinterland to the coastal areas for export. Indeed little has been done since independence, and little is likely to be done under the current wave of structural adjustment programs. Despite their importance, infrastructural development is the first casualty of SAPs.

The implications of the above problem are manifested in all interventions and simply labelled as failures in projects because they were conceived as technological fixes based a top-down approach. Most ASALs interventions are located in inaccessible areas far from the mainstream of policy and decision making centers in the capitals. In reality, at decision and policy making levels, supervision of these projects are limited to occasional one or two days visits when the roads are good. At the local level the absence of developed infrastructure impedes free movement of people, goods and services, the prerequisite for trade and creation of wealth.

In ASALs development, biotechnology and remote sensing have particularly high potential that is grossly under-utilized. Both of them require the understanding of natural dynamics, basic information and research networks. Through biotechnology, drought resistant/tolerant strains of crops could be developed but their extension to the users could be impeded by poor communication. On the other hand the application of remote sensing for planning and monitoring of agriculture, range management, forestry, livestock, water management and reforestation becomes constrained by lack of basic data and information. Establishing and strengthening of basic hydrological, meteorological and geo-hydrological and information networks should be the starting point.

The subregional landscape is littered with sites of failed and abandoned projects, a testimony of technology transfer/transplant that was either rejected by the recipient or did not take root. Few projects in the ASALs continue after the donor funds are stopped. The inherent weakness could be traced to poor communication (roads, rail, tele communications etc.) Unfortunately, using conventional economic indicators, development of infrastructure in the ASALs assumes very low priority. The subregion has not emulated the examples of the settlers in similar ecosystems in America or Australia, where infrastructure development was a prerequisite in exploiting the wealth of these ASALs.

Shared Natural Resources

The IGADD subregion consists of varied ecosystems that transcend national boundaries. These are the shared ecosystems such as seas, water sheds/river basins, wildlife areas, aquifers and rangelands. It is imperative that the countries of the subregion endeavour to conserve those resources through the formulation of appropriate policies and programmes that would ensure sustainability.

CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS

i. The adverse effects of drought and desertification impede countries' full participation in global environmental protection due to the presence of urgent overriding issues and actions of human survival that degrade the very base on which they subsist. The actual and effective participation in Biodiversity, Climate Change and other Conventions in the field of environment becomes grossly hampered by the phenomena of drought and desertification.

ii. The presence of ASALs in the subregion and poverty need not be synonymous. What the subregion requires is determination and concern from governments to adopt proper policies and put correct investments, particularly in communications infrastructure, to open these areas and reduce the pressure on them.

iii. Previous interventions had conceptual and structural weakness in that the development actors over emphasized the role of producers in desertification control and hence land resource utilization as the central issue. It is important but an insufficient strategy in controlling a phenomenon that has varied internalities and externalties. In fact the consumer might be central if not the determinant in controlling the direction of desertification. In this respect local as well as international consumers should be addressed by the convention. Changes in consumption styles, technology transfer, international trade and direction of investments all come into play. Over-emphasis on agriculture and forestry, even in unsuitable ecosystems irrespective of their comparative advantage has been one source of failure of most interventions in ASAL management.

iv. In a unipolar world, geopolitical considerations for providing assistance have disappeared. The obligation to meet ODA level will eventually grow dimmer or might disappear altogether. Budget realities will limit the amount of assistance the donor countries might devote to global development. Indeed, ODA as it exists today might not be the same in the 21st century and we need to be prepared for this eventuality. One way to redress this eventuality is to invoke the issue of popular participation and dialogue, not at the usual local and grassroots level but in a more realistic, pragmatic and upgraded level of international popular participation and dialogue. Aid should not be seen as a handout but a negotiable investment undertaking. Popular participation should be a political/economic consultative process in a community of nations but not a funding conditionality. There are serious doubts that all the development projects in the ASALs have been subjected to intense discussions between the donor and the recipient. Countries afflicted by the scourge of drought and desertification should discuss development issues more pragmatically with their northern partners. Both of them should adjust their policies towards more mutually cooperative undertakings that turn the available resources into wealth. That is the essence of participation and dialogue for their mutual benefits. Creation of wealth in the south has positive impacts in that it eliminates total dependency on ODA and promotes mutual cooperative mechanisms in the form of trade and job creation in the north.

v. Despite the dismal results from previous interventions in the drylands of the Sahel, it is important to be optimistic about the future of the ASALs. These lands are not wastelands and could be managed to productive levels. Setting aside the arguments about definitions, the ASALs have proved resilient after sustaining periodic shocks of drought. While the apparent resilience does not indicate the actual damage and degradation that the system has suffered and neither could it indicate the actual or potential productivity of the system, it gives hope and optimism in the management of ASALs. However the cost element and the policies required should take into account the low productivity associated with marginal areas.

vi. Indeed, much of the Sahelian drylands are not degraded beyond repair. Given proper economic and technological inputs guided by proper policy, most ASALs could be restored to productivity. Unfortunately, at the present level of poverty, investment in these lands is low and governments prefer investment in high potential areas with quick and high outputs. Governments need to reorient their budgetary allocations and policy reformulation to reflect commitment in addressing the special needs of ASALs. There is need to allocate a significant percentage of the GDP specifically to ASAL development programmes since the lands are potentially productive. The call for high-level government commitment implies specific legislation that should focus on ASALs, and sustainability of funding can only be initiated by the concerned governments. Institutional arrangements that reflect the special cases of ASALs should be put in place.

vii. Drought in its various forms is a phenomenon that is endemic to the subregion. While the debate continues on its cyclic nature and periodicity, it is known that the subregion will continue suffering from periodic shocks of drought. It is therefore imperative to prepare for this eventuality by developing drought preparedness strategies at national and subregional level as well as establishing and strengthening national and subregional early warning and drought monitoring systems.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Ahlcrona, E. (1988) The impact of climate and man on land transformation in Central Sudan. Meddel. Lunds Univ. geogr.inst. Avhandl.103.

Aubreville, A. (1949) climats, Forets, et Desertification de l'Afrique Tropicale. Société de Editions Geographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales, Paris 255p.

Bie, S.W. (1990) Dryland Degradation Measurement Techniques. World Bank Environment Dept. Environment Working paper 26, Washington DC. 42 p.

Bovill, E. (1921) The Encroachment of the Sahara on the Sudan. Journal of the Royal African Society, 20.

Dregne, H.E. (1983) Desertification of Arid Lands. Advances in Desert and Arid land Technology and Development, Vol.3.

Dregne, H.E. (1987) Reflections on the PACD. Desertification Control Bulletin, 15.

Dregne, H.E. and Tucker, C.J. (1988) "Desert encroachment". Desertificatiion Control Bulletin, 16.

Grainger, A. (1990) The Threatening Desert. Earthscan, London. 369p.

Farah, M. H. (1985) The Impact of Environmental Degradation on Natural Pastures. A Paper presented at he E.D.P.A.L.A. Workshop, Ed Dammer, June-July, 1985, (in Arabic).

Harrison, M.N. and Jackson, J.K. (1958) Ecological Classification of the Vegetation of the Sudan. Forest Bull. 2 Sudan Survey Department, Khartoum.

Hellden, U. (1984) Drought impact monitoring by remote sensing studies of desertification in Kordofan. Lund Univ. Notiser 61.

Hellden, U. (1988) Desertification Monitoring. Desertification Control Bulletin, 17.

IGADD/CILSS/UNSO (June, 1991). Report on the Strategic Concerns of the Sudano-Sahelian Countries in the context of UNCED. p. 21, IGADD. (1990) forum on Development of Subregional Strategy to Combat Desertification. Vol.1

IGADD. (1990) Food Security Strategy Vol. 1 & 2

IGADD. (1992) Household Energy Study in the IGADD Member States. Vol. 1, 2 & 3

IGADD Member States. (Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Uganda) (1992) UNCED National Reports.

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Olsson, K, (1985) Remote sensing for fuelwood resources and land degradation studies in Kordofan, the Sudan. Meddel. Lunds Univ. geogr. inst. Avhandl.100.

Olsson, L, (1985) An integrated study of desertification: applications of remote sensing, GIS and spatial models in seim-arid Sudan. Meddel. Lunds Univ. geogr. inst. Avhandl. 98.

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Warren, A. and Agnew, C. (1988) An Assessment of Desertification and Land Degradation in Arid and Semi-arid Areas. Ecology and Conservation Unit, University College, London.

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DROUGHT MONITORING IN THE IGADD REGION

Presented by: Mr. Njihia, Deputy Director of Meteorological Services, Kenya

Following is additional relevant information on drought monitoring activities at the Drought Monitoring Centres (DMCs) in Nairobi and Harare, which work very closely together.

In 1989, UNDP and WMO established two drought monitoring centres, the main centre in Nairobi and a sub-centre in Harare, to serve the often drought-stricken countries of Eastern and Southern Africa. UNDP provided funds for the project and WMO played the role of executing agency.

The development objective of the two Centres was to alleviate the negative impact of drought and other related adverse weather conditions upon agricultural production and natural resources in the region through improved applications of meteorological and hydrological data and products.

The project has 21 participating countries, namely:

Angola Ethiopia

Botswana Kenya

Burundi Lesotho

Comoros Malagasy

Djibouti Malawi

Mauritius Swaziland

Mozambique Tanzania

Rwanda Uganda

Seychelles Zambia and

Somalia Zimbabwe

Sudan

From 1989 through 1990 the activities of the DMCs centred on building the necessary infrastructure to support the operational capabilities of the Centres in order to meet the objective of the project.

The DMCs are charged with the responsibility of monitoring drought in a timely manner with respect to its intensity, and geographical extent, duration and impact upon agricultural production and giving early warning for the formulation of appropriate strategies to combat its adverse effects. In short, the DMCs are sub-regional climate diagnostic centres from where all the information relating to drought and weather patterns is readily available to interested users within and outside the eastern and southern African region.

The preparation and dissemination of drought related products started in March 1991. Currently the centres are publishing:

i. Monthly and quarterly climatological summaries and bulletins on drought severity conditions for the sub-region;

ii. Dominant synoptic systems and three month weather outlook for the sub-regions;

iii. Monthly bulletins on agrometeorological conditions and impacts in the subregion;

iv. Ten-day climatological and drought severity summaries;

v. Ten-day agrometeorological conditions and impacts bulletin;

vi. Ten-day synoptic reviews and weather outlooks in the sub-region; and

vii. Ten-day, monthly and quarterly meteorological data for the sub-region;

The information provided to users by the DMCs gives the necessary tools with which to provide early warning and to formulate appropriate strategies to combat the impacts of drought. The Nairobi Centre has responsibility for issuing climatological, synoptic and hydrometeorlogical products. The Harare Centre issues agrometeorological products.

Once the Convention on Desertification is concluded, ratified and comes into force, it is expected that the DMCs will play an important role in the implementation of commitments of the participating countries in areas relevant to the Centres' activities. The participating countries may want to increase the scope of work of the Centres to include activities which are not currently undertaken. One can anticipate that one of the commitments for Country Parties to the Convention would be to strengthen existing institutions so as to place them in a better position to serve the member countries in the implementation of the Convention.

EXPERIENCE GAINED BY TECHNICAL COOPERATION BETWEEN BURKINA FASO, CILLS, AND GERMANY IN THE FIELD OF NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND DESERTIFICATION CONTROL : PATECORE PROJECT IN BURKINA FASO

Presented by : Dr. Helmut Wöhl, Principal technical advisor for rural development, GTZ, Germany

INTRODUCTION

It has been was suggested that the solution to the problems of the drylands might lie in the use of sophisticated techniques or outside the drylands. In our contribution we would like to draw your attention to some solutions which lie in the reach of local population, which can be implemented without great delay and which do not require heavy additional funding.

The Project Context

We would like to present to you the experience gained by technical Cooperation between Burkina Faso/CILSS and Germany in the field of Natural Resource Management and desertification control. The PATECORE project in Burkina Faso - the Project for Land-use and Conservation of Resources - covers the Central Plateau which lies in the Province of Bam in Burkina Faso.

The Geography and Ecological Conditions of the Central Plateau

The Central Plateau is characterized by a chain of hills as well as by plains and depressions: the chain of hills reacher elevations of up to 500 m above sea level. The plains are located at an elevation of about 300 m above sea level and suffer frequently from severe sheet erosion. As a result of the rainfall up to 200 tones of soil per hectare can be carried away each year. The depressions are used for growing crops, but are subject to severe erosion effects also. The mean annual precipitation is 500 mm, but its distribution varies greatly both in time and in area and the intensity also fluctuates highly.

Socio-Economic Conditions

The project region is subjected to high population pressure. The population density is more than 40 inhabitants per square kilometer. The local population lives mainly on subsistence production. The principal crop and staple food is millet.

Causes of the Destruction of Resources

Growing population pressure and the resulting increase in demand for food and energy coupled with the retention of traditional but no longer ecologically appropriate land-use systems, leads to over-use of natural resources.

Consequences

These trends turn to degradation, scarcity and ultimately destruction of resources. Thus in the long term it is no longer possible to reliably secure basic needs for the affected population. These people become dependent on aid from the exterior or they have to migrate to other regions. Both options entail substantial problems.

The population of the Central Plateau experienced the consequences of destruction of resources perceptibly: impoverishment of the soils, decline in harvest yields, shortage of fuelwood, scarcity of water, food and animal fodder.

In fact, the population was not in a position to respond to these problems appropriately by itself and to alter its traditional forms of land management. The strain resulting from this situation considerably enhanced the willingness of the village population to analyze the problems and search for solutions with external support.

Two conclusions derived from this situation:

i. The principal causes of desertification on the Central Plateau are primarily man-made and so this is where desertification control measures must be spear headed.

ii. One of the principal effects of desertification is the high population pressure prevailing in the project area, therefore, demographic aspects must be integrated in all phases of desertification control.

CORE PROBLEM, PROJECT APPROACH AND PROJECT ACTIVITIES

Core Problem

The core problem is progressive desertification which leads to a decline in agricultural production so that it is no longer possible to reliably secure basic needs in the long term.

Project Approach/Objective

The objective of the project is to build up appropriate structures in Burkina Faso for coordinated implementation on the Central Plateau of land use methods which conserve natural resources.

Before turning to the project activities we would like to show that the population already practiced conservation of resources activities even before the project commenced.

For example placing a border of stones around fields and planting the edge strips of fields with "Andropon gaianus" grass help to prevent surface water from running off quickly and so increase the rate of infiltration. Covering fields with bushes and branches, also slowed down surface run-off, increased infiltration and thus contributed to improving harvest yields. However these activities were no longer sufficient to halt erosion process. Therefore outside help was required.

Project Activities

Project activities which have been implemented so far are:

i. Participative land-use planning, and

ii. Site-appropriate measures for conservation of soil and water.

The Project as a Process of Trial and Error

The PATECORE project was not planned by bureaucrats at their head office, nor did it begin with the same activities and methods that characterize its work today. It is thus by no means a static structure, but instead forms part of a dynamic process.

In its present form, the project is a part and the result of a process of experimentation and learning that was initiated in the project region in 1982/83 by the Technical Cooperation program "German Sahel Program/CILSS" (PAC) with the implementation of two pilot projects. In cooperation with two national NGOs, improved village land-use methods were initially tried out with the population groups of two water catchment areas on the Central Plateau.

During this time much valuable experience was gained, which was then put to good use in the design of PATECORE: erosion control techniques and methods of land-use planning and coordination were developed and tested, to a certain extent in cooperation with other projects.

Today's concept and the project results have evolved from thoroughly evaluating problems which arose in the implementation of land-use planning. The problems and lessons learnt were as follows:

Lack of Correlation Between Plan and Landscape for Resource Users

The plan users, i.e. the resource users, were unable to establish any correlation between the plan which had been drawn up since their understanding of their natural environment differs from the understanding of the persons who drew up the plan.

Therefore, a planning method was developed which was adjusted to the abilities of the farmers. The villagers' familiarity with their surroundings, their experience and their traditional knowledge of the environmental conditions are given absolute priority in both the classification and evaluation of the various land units.

The fact that the farmers' knowledge was not rejected as being primitive or ignored but - on the contrary - was given priority in all considerations and actually formed the basis of land-use planning meant that the villagers were treated seriously as partners. This enabled them to reflect on their situation in a more objectives-oriented manner, to develop appropriate solutions to their problems and to mobilize their own resources.

Lessons Learnt:

i. All efforts should focus on the actual resource users;

ii. Strong integration of traditional knowledge is necessary in planning and implementing measures;

iii. The various user groups must be responsibly involved in planning, decision-making, implementation and evaluation;

iv. Research, training, sectoral extension services and financial support must be geared to the concrete needs of the resource users; and

v. The community or village territory is the appropriate planning unit on the local level.

Assistance of Insititutions and Solutions

Target groups were made to feel insecure by the large variety of solutions and institutions they faced and the large number of different problem-solving approaches of the technical services of government and non-governmental organizations.

In the project region there are a large number of organizations, projects and technical services which implement resource management measures with the population. Up to six different organizations and services may frequently be operating in a single village. They rarely work together and they tend to consider each other more as competitors than as partners. Although they all pursue the same objective - to introduce measures for improved management of natural resources - both the technical solutions and the modes of procedure adopted by these organizations differ. This led to an enormous feeling of insecurity among the affected population.

In order to tackle this problem effectively, one of PATECORE's very first actions was to initiate the establishment of a committee at province level in which all the services and organizations conducting resource management activities in the province are represented. The main purpose of this committee is to serve as a forum for the coordination and planning of resource management activities conducted by government services and NGOs.

The coordination committees is a voluntary body. The good will and willingness to cooperate on the part of the organizations and services affected is evidenced by regular attendance at meetings by all involved. The need to achieve coordination in this field had long been clear to all concerned. However rivalry and mistrust were strong and it was very difficult or even impossible to establish contact between the organizations and services.

Today the various government and non-governmental organizations can approach each other with less prejudice. They have started up a dialogue process and are able to cooperate with each other.

However, the project is confronted with problems here as well. The scope for consultation and coordination of activities on a voluntary basis is limited. Insufficient coordination between the various ministries and the lack of any formal planning institution at province and district level lead to a situation in which the government services are frequently given partly conflicting programs by the national authorities, which they then have to carry out. This makes it substantially more difficult to harmonize development efforts.

Lessons Learnt:

In order to overcome these problems the following is necessary:

i. Strengthening of national planning, steering and coordination capacities at all levels;

ii. Training of the personnel at these institutions in planning and management, and transfer of skills in connection with implementing decentralization measures;

iii. Involvement of non-governmental organizations and traditional institutions of the participating population;

iv. Coordination and cooperation of all government and non-governmental institutions, programs and projects which are involved in desertification control;

v. Systematic evaluation of the experience gained to date in order to disseminate innovations more quickly and to avoid repeating the same mistakes.

Conservation of Resources not Accepted as a Planning Objective

The interest of users was turned towards short term benefits such as earning cash income by vegetable production. Thus implementation of measures for improved management of resources with a view to improving and stabilizing agricultural production did not lie in the direct interest of the villagers from the start. Only when vegetable gardening failed to meet the high expectations, the priorities of the village population began to change.

Lessons Learnt:

There is beyond any doubt a close connection between the pressure of problems under which a population group has to suffer as a result of destruction of resources and the extant to which this population group is willing to alter its land-use forms and to mobilize self-help.

It can be assumed that wherever a high pressure of problems has a detrimental effect on the living conditions of the population, in other words when the communities are "standing with their back to the wall", there will always be a general willingness to implement self-help measures and improved management of resources, but there also has to be a direct benefit.

RESULTS AND IMPACTS

The flexible approach of the project has brought about the following results (1986 - 93):

i. About 60,000 persons in over 300 villages have been reached so far by project activities;

ii. Soil erosion has been stabilized over an area of 7,000 hectares

iii. The rate of increase in harvest yields of millet and sorghum was already between 50 and 150% already in the first year and has kept up;

iv. Overall length of all erosion control structures built up to 1993 amounts altogether to 1,800 km;

v. Self-help capabilities have been improved over a broad range (so far more than 1,000 persons have taken part in training sessions);

vi. Work has been started on the implementation of erosion control measures without project support;

vii. The self esteem of the population is enhanced;

viii. The population sees prospects for the future again;

ix. Migration from the project region is reduced;

x. The advisory institutions have changed from being supply-oriented to being demand- oriented

SUMMARY OF LESSONS LEARNT

The main problems of desertification on the central plateau are primarily man-made and therefore the emphasis must be put on the socio-economic aspects of land use.

Projects and programs have to follow an integrated and holistic approach in order to assure sustainable resource management at the community level.

The resource users have to be put into the center of all efforts aiming at sustainable management of natural resources by:

i. Involving them in planning, implementing and controlling community based resource management;

ii. Strengthening their role in decision making and allocation of funds;

iii. Strengthening local management capacities through intensive training;

iv. Insuring that short-term economic benefits are connected with anti-desertification activities.

Appropriate pre-conditions for an improved saucerization of resource users have to be created by:

i. Establishing a local framework guaranteeing the general rights of land users;

ii. Establishing a local and institutional framework to effectively solve land use conflicts;

iii. Permitting locally appropriate regulation of land use, which would enable the resource users to establish land use plans.

The planning, implementation and control of resource management programs has to integrate the traditional knowledge and know-how of the user groups.

Country capacity building for improved natural resource management has to be intensified by:

i. Use of available knowledge on all levels more systematically;

ii. Better coordination and harmonization of the implementation of the existing strategies and plans;

iii. Establishment of user-tailored environmental information system.

Population-related aspects such as migration, decreasing availability of productive land per capita and decreasing fallow periods have to be included in the program planning process.

EXPERIENCES WITH SUB-REGIONAL AND NATIONAL PROGRAMMES TO COMBAT DESERITFICATION AND MITIGATE DROUGHT IN THE ARAB MAGREB UNION (UMA) REGION

Presented by : Mr. Mustafa Tlili, Advisor to Secretary-General, Arab Magreb Union (UMA)

INTRODUCTION

North Africa is among regions that suffer from erosion and deforestation and where vegetation is degrading. Thus, there is a great interest in the various ways to prevent erosion and protect the soil in this region.

Each country of the Union has its own experience in this field, and its own way of dealing with desertification problems. Libya, for instance, is famous for its special efforts to resist wind erosion and to protect oases. The large scale use of stone was initiated in Algeria and then became used all over the world. Tunisia has a leading experience in the fields of water and soil conservation, improvement of pastures and combating advancing sands. Morocco, for its part has successful experience in the planting of eucalyptus and reforestation of mountainous regions.

These countries also share a common climate, relief and vegetation. Overall, dams, irrigations, and terrace cultivation of the soil are among the most important means used to resist desertification.

ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIFITIES OF THE NORTH AFRICAN REGION

Relief

The North African landscape consists of coastal plains, mountain chains and high hills, although the greatest part of this region is located in the Sahara desert. With the exception of Morocco, the Arab Maghreb region is generally considered to be poor with regard to surface waters and rivers.

Climate

The climate is one of the main factors influencing erosion and the preservation of water. Rainfall varies from year to year and from season to season, but it often reaches 100 mm/year. Torrential rains have a devastating effect on soils, especially in this regions where the soil is very sensitive.

The temperatures drop in degrees in northern regions sometimes reaches 0o (Celsius) during the month of July and August. The temperatures also rises from eastern to western regions according to the topography and in accordance with the rainfall. As for the minimal temperatures, they tend to drop in the northern and coastal regions as well as in the desertic areas of the continental regions. In the coastal areas the minimal temperatures rarely reach 0o (Celsius) where as in mountainous areas, they can drop as low as -10o.

Winds are one of the main causes of dry land as well as erosion, in North Africa, especially in arid and semi-arid areas with poor vegetation and sandy soil. Wind erosion causes many problems for the inhabitants of these areas and much damage to the cultivation of soil and to cattle. Winds have yet another divesting effect in the semi-desertic regions and the oases for they lead to the silting up of inhabited areas.

The interaction of atmospheric and climatic elements results in the creation of an ecosystem that has very specific vegetation, making vegetation a distinctive indicator of climates and regions.

Soil

With this relief and climate the Arab Maghreb region is characterized by three main areas:

i. High lands and high plains;

ii. Mountainous lands and hills; and

iii. Saharian region

The Arab Maghreb is mainly arid and semi-arid with a rather poor use of soil and inadequate agriculture. The soil is rather rich with calcium components which generally harm agricultural goals.

THE DESERTIFICATION PHENOMENON IN THE ARAB MAGHREB REGION

General Symptoms of the Phenomenon

Desertification is the most apparent negative phenomenon from which the region suffers, due to its extent and the importance of its effects on the economic and social development of the region. Studies show that 80% of pastoral areas, 35% of non-irrigated soils suitable for cultivation and 25% of irrigated soils are affected by desertification, since 85% of irrigated soils located in arid or semi- arid regions are intensely exposed to desertification effects.

Control Measures

In Algeria, interventions were mainly based on a national project called the "Green Barrel" which covers the Saharan Atlas region on a surface estimated at 3 million hectares. In Morocco, measures include stabilization of sand hills by reforestation and in Libya conservation of oases from desertification and protection of rivermouths from erosion. Popular participation is encouraged in Mauritania within the framework of general policies.

GENERAL POLICIES

i. To react and enforce necessary legislation for the protection of nature;

ii. To enact out national plans, strategies and intervention programs which will take into account all the data and specifications of the zones of intervention, including the economic and social ones;

iii. To work for a parallel development of mountain regions, fertile plains, and arid and semi-arid zones, in order to diminish the differences in the sectors of developments in these zones;

iv. To accord priority to threatened zones;

v. To encourage the involvement of populations based on participatory methods in all development programs to promote of natural resources;

vi. To put out publications and maps showing the causes of desertification;

vii. To promote collaborative projects between research institutes and agricultural academic studies in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco; and set up a coordination system among national institutions.

ORIENTATIONS

From the Maghrebian experience in combating desertification we can draw three points:

i. The desertification phenomenon in the AMU is really due to its geographical situation on the Mediterranean and its proximity to Europe. It is worth pointing out that whenever it is a matter of desertification in the AMU, there is an interaction of interests and preoccupations between North and South.

ii. The AMU has a rich experience in this field, which can lead to important perspectives for horizontal cooperation among developing countries.

iii. Our experience is shown in the important part played by the sub-regional organization, which will continue in the future.

THE TUNISIAN EXPERIENCE IN COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND ITS IMPACTS

Presented by : Mr. Kallala Abdessalem, Principal Engineer, Ministry of Environment and Land Management, Tunisia

DEGRADATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Tunisia covers an area around 16.4 millions hectares, 5

million of which are reserved for agriculture, primarily cereals and fruit trees. Over the years, this pattern of land use has fundamentally modified the rural environment and the quality of life. However, even if desertification and erosion are not new phenomena in Tunisia, they are more worrisome every year.

In sixty five years, rural areas of the country have undergone great upheavals. Land cultivated in 1920 totaled an estimated 1.2 million hectares; currently, it exceeds 5 million. In the same period, the Tunisian population more than tripled. This increase in population led to illegal clearing of natural vegetation and to cultivation of land previously used for transhumance, whose soils were very vulnerable to erosion.

In addition to social problems, ecological, geographical and climatic conditions have particularly favored intense degradation of natural resources, persistent erosion and desertification processes. This has produced significant risks of water quality deterioration and depletion of fresh water biodiversity, both plant and animal.

The frequency of storms, along with the irregularity of rainfall, both interannually and interseasonally, has strongly contributed to the acceleration of water erosion. A map compiled in 1967, covering 12 million of Tunisia's 16.4 million hectares, shows 7 million hectares threatened directly or indirectly by such erosion. Another 4 million hectares suffering wind erosion also suffer some water erosion.

In the center and south of the country, persistent desertification threatens 5.6 million hectares of land of which 25% represent arable land suffering strong degradation and 40% average degradation. Land considered until now safe from desertification is also becoming vulnerable, 16% to very strong degradation and 25% to average degradation.

Different desertification processes, such as shifting sand, wind erosion, secondary salinization and depletion of genetic resources, entail each year the loss of considerable relatively productive land in the center and the south of the country where the standard of living of the rural population is particularly low. More generally, all of the country's natural resources, including land, water, and vegetation cover, are undergoing serious deterioration that leaves it mark on social and economic conditions, particularly in rural areas. The future of the country thus depends closely on its capacity to preserve its natural resources.

NATIONAL STRATEGY TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION

Before action is taken, it is necessary to elaborate a national strategy and plan of action that considers all causes of desertification. It is in this spirit that the Tunisian Government began in 1985 a series of national strategies to combat desertification, the latest of which, covering the period 191-2000, focuses on water erosion, overgrazing and deforestation.

These strategies lay out a number of concrete and practical actions at a technical and scientific level within the reach of peasants. They aim to promote agricultural activity in the six provinces of southern Tunisia while allowing better management of rural areas by conserving productive land and exploitable natural resources and protecting them against the processes of sand encroachment, wind erosion, gullying, scouring and salinization. These resources, namely land, natural vegetation and water, are difficult to preserve in arid southern ecosystems which are gradually deteriorating under growing human pressure (46% of the population lives in rural areas.) The following facts are relevant to the situation in the south:

i. An increasing population that can only subsist through agricultural activities, a pressure which brings growing ecological disequilibrium characterized by accelerating desertification;

ii. An unorganized agricultural system except for date production in modern and ancient oases. (This system plays a dominant social role since it constitutes the primary source of jobs in the region but under current conditions, employment is barely sufficient to support the local people); and

iii. A society where agriculture, while the predominant economic activity, contributes, paradoxically, only one third of household income, the rest coming from emigrant remittances which are decreasing both absolutely and per capita, creating a new social situation and leading to rural exodus as well as desertification.

All of these factors oblige the government to promote agriculture in southern regions in order to maintain its social role, ensure sound management of rural areas, increase land productivity and decrease the risks of desertification. The national strategy to combat desertification responds to such conditions with the following orientation:

i. "Protect to produce". (This means that all conservation activities have to be intimately related to actions promoting rural agricultural production even if this increases costs and reduces value added);

ii. Promote the private agricultural sector and integrate local populations concerned, from the beginning, in the design of community management projects so that public works respond realistically to their needs and give them a sense of common purpose. (Peasants should participate in feasibility studies and help decide priority areas for intervention. They should also contribute traditional knowledge of their surroundings to more sophisticated government hydrological and other studies. Only peasants themselves can explain the nuances of multiple land usage, therefore, methods should be found to make them not just assistants but full partners in rural development strategies and their implementation. This approach can succeed only with proper incentives in the form of grants or long- term loans allowing peasant to pass through the phase of agricultural uncertainty to a period of stable production over time;

iii. Give priority to agricultural development in areas where aquifers can provide sufficient water. (This allows more rational management of rural areas and a range of conservation activities combatting desertification. It need not be at the expense, however, of pastoral activities in arid ecosystems, which can thrive where less underground water is available. Moreover, where underground water is abundant, the creation of oases and irrigated perimeters should get top priority in the early phases of plan implementation);

iv. Develop alterative livelihoods in vulnerable regions, to minimize anthropogenic pressure on fragile ecosystems, by encouraging populations and local organization to take the initiative in creating profitable activities, such as handicrafts and tourism, which do not exploit natural resources. This undoubtedly requires encouragement of rural organizations, popular participation, and the involvement of local communities in the process of rural sustainable development, with particular attention to women and small businesses;

v. Reorient and strengthen support for research and development of environmentally sound technologies, taking account of both existing systems of production and the needs of small producers;

vi. Support efforts to combat desertification through more efficient coordination and cooperation among all parties involved in conserving natural resources, with a view to increasing the value of technical assistance and other contributions from the international community. One way to do this, going beyond the theoretical level, is by listing concrete priority actions in the form of project options, some of which might involve loan agreements, under five headings:

i. Actions to improve agricultural and pastoral production by exploiting existing resources (preservation and creation of oases, water harvesting, pasture improvement, consolidation of camel breeding);

ii. Inventories of available resources not yet exploited (prospecting underground resources);

iii. Research support to allow development in the south to adapt to ecological and socio- economic conditions;

iv. Training and public awareness campaigns to integrate peasants in government programs; and

v. Monitoring and evaluation of the impact of desertification processes on local society.

The totality of these actions constitutes only the minimum effort needed to promote agriculture in arid regions and to combat desertification. These actions should catalyze other activities by public services and the private sector in the areas affected.

BALANCE SHEET AND PERSPECTIVES

Many indices and historical records tend to show that human societies in Tunisia have rarely been indifferent to issues of natural resource degradation, normally working against such trends. Vestiges of works to combat desertification, such as water harvesting systems, attest to this, notably in the center and the south of the country. To face persistent degradation trends, the country has taken many important measures, particularly during the three last decades, in the physical, institutional and judicial spheres.

On the institutional side, in order to efficiently combat desertification, the Tunisian Government has put in place a number of structures. Aside from the Forest Department which has operated since the 19th century with a bureau responsible for anti-desertification projects, other important institutions with this purpose are:

i. The Institute of South Tunisian Arid Regions (law 75/6 of 7 January l975);

ii. The Department of Water and Soil Conservation, created in l983, which concentrates on the agronomy of sloped landscapes;

iii. The Soil Department, which since its creation in l983 has focused on anti-desertification efforts such as soil maps, campaigns to sensitize the public to wind and water erosion and reclamation of irrigated perimeters subject to salinization;

iv. The Department of Water Resources, which is responsible for underground waters, notably in arid zones of the country;

v. The Department of Rural Engineering, which is responsible particularly for hydro-agricultural management and rural development; and

vi. The Office of Herding and Pastures, which has in the desertified south of the country a regional bureau concerned with eliminating overgrazing in areas vulnerable to desertification, particularly through irrigated forage production.

At the regional level, each province has a division of agricultural development, a decentralized structure to coordinate regional interventions. To improve social and economic conditions in regions of southern Tunisian threatened by desertification, the Government also created in l983 The Office of Southern Development, which promotes integrated development strategies by providing assistance for the creation and support through small projects of small and medium-sized enterprises in the cottage industry and handicraft sectors.

Aside from these development institutions, there exist several research centers; principally: The National Institute of Forest Research; The Rural Engineering Research Center and The Institute of Agronomic Research of Tunisia.

These development and research institutions collaborate in mounting projects in regions strongly threatened by desertification, of which the most important are concerned with: research and development of transhumance routes in center and southern Tunisia; agro-pastoral development, including increases in animal production in arid regions; rehabilitation of rangeland and Pre-Saharan zones affected by wind erosion; public awareness of desertification issues, a North African green belt, assistance to fruit tree cultivation, an inventory of both surface and deep water resources looking toward their utilization in irrigation projects, and identification of viable development activities in the south.

On the judicial side, the first important law was the decree of 6 October l949 that set up soil conservation districts. On the eve of independence in 1956, a series of laws followed to complement this legislation, the most important of which are:

i. The law of 7 October l959, incorporated in the Forest Code of 4 July 1966 and adjusted in 1988, which demonstrates the keen interest of the Government in the conservation of arable lands;

ii. Law 58-105 of 7 October l958 mandating contour ploughing;

iii. Law 58-106 of 7 October l958 on reforestation for wind breaks;

iv. The decree of 3 November l956 instituting the "Day of the Tree";

v. The law of 27 May l963 supporting government soil and water conservation activities;

vi. The decree of 6 October l970 regulating government soil and water conservation activities;

vii. The decree of 10 October l973 instituting the Grand Prize of the President of the Republic for reforestation and soil conservation; and

viii. Law 83-87 of 11 November l983 relative to the conservation of agricultural land.

Others texts will strengthen this legislation relative to combatting desertification and it will be reenforced by a special code on soil and water conservation.

In terms of infrastructure, areas totalling a million hectares of sloping land have been improved through techniques of soil conservation, water harvesting, creation of approximately 87 hillside lakes and manure spreading. Action to control sand dune encroachment in recent years has encompassed the protection of 100 oases and 70 000 hectares of agricultural land, involving projects such as fixing 40000 hectares of artificial dunes and reforestation of 28,000 hectares of cleared land. Despite such efforts to combat desertification, however, worrisome trends continue in some parts of the country. The Government, convinced that environmental and developmental imperatives can be reconciled in a single conceptual framework, is responding with a sustainable development strategy.

This national strategy will provide a better framework for sustainable development geared to meeting aspirations for better living conditions, which requires coordination and harmonization of the interventions of development institutions to ensure their efficiency, continuity and economic viability in meetings both production and conservation goals. This philosophy guides government activities throughout Tunisian territory, which, among other things, envisage through the year 2000 the realization of a variety of projects in integrated watershed management such as:

i. Erosion control on 600,000 hectares of land;

ii. Improvement of 400,000 hectares of grain-producing land;

iii. Creation of 1,000 hillside lakes;

iv. Construction of 4,000 works to recharge aquifers and fertilize lands with flood plain waters; and

v. Conservation and maintenance activities on one million hectares already rehabilitated.

The costs at 1990 prices for realizing such projects in this decade total an estimated 557 millions dinars. Desertification-control actions, consisting principally of sand dune fixation through replanting, are concentrated in areas where vegetation cover is practically nonexistent. They involve urgently needed rehabilitation before dunes bury agricultural land and accompanying infrastructure. Such actions will bring significant improvements in the medium term in production of pastoral and biomass products.

In the course of the decade 1991-2000, desertification control programs are projected to fix 24,000 hectares of sand dunes, to create 24,000 kilometers of protective green belts, and to improve 600,000 hectares of rangeland. Obviously implementation of this strategy against erosion and desertification requires mobilization of significant financial resources, which are estimated at 2,000 millions Dinars. It is essential for Tunisia that pushing the edge of the financial envelope to carry out desertification-control programs not involve resource transfers detrimental to other essential development projects but rather mobilize new and additional sources of financing.

ALGERIAN EXPERIENCE IN COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND ITS IMPACTS

Presented by : Mr. Tewfik Abada, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Algeria

INTRODUCTION

With 2.4 million km2, Algeria is one of the largest countries in Africa with wide ranging ecosystems in its territory. Schematically, from the north to the south of the country, five ecosystems can be identified:

i. A typically Mediterranean marine ecosystem;

ii. A hilly ecosystem, interspersed with plains and characterized by an extensive mediterranean climate, limited to about, 3 to 4% of the territory, with irregular rainfall, fragile top soils and very high slope erosion;

iii. A mountainous ecosystem with heavy and irregular rainfall, fragile forests and considerable erosion, as well as snow in winter;

iv. A widespread steppe ecosystem on high plateaus characterized by a thin layer of natural soil, weak vegetation cover, frosty winters and very hot summers; and

v. A widespread desert ecosystem with very low rainfall, a wide difference in temperatures and sand storm which cause sand dune encroachment.

Three major natural constraints characterize Algeria's ecosystems, namely:

i. The absence or extreme irregularity of rainfall, which makes water resource mobilization very difficult.

ii. The absence or extreme fragility of humus soils, indispensable for all pastoral and agricultural development; and

iii. The magnitude of temperature differences in summer and winter, to which pastoral and agricultural development systems, as well as habitats, have to adapt.

EXTENT OF DESERTIFICATION

Desertification in Algeria mainly affects all presaharan regions lying between the 400 mm isohyet to the north and the 100 mm one to the south. These regions represent 60% of the productive land in Algeria and support the raising of sheep.

The pernicious and extended process of desertification in Algeria continues to degrade ecosystems every year. This land degradation is due, in the first place, to a significant overload of the carrying capacity of land as a direct consequence of livestock numbers that exceed its productive capacity. Secondly, an increasingly extensive episodic cultivation of cereals resulted from the development of mechanized farming, as well as from demographic growth, thereby removing more vegetation cover.

The intensive pressure on the biological resources of precariously balanced ecosystems resulted finally in the irreversible disappearance of vivacious plants, and the exposure of the soil to total erosion. The cumulative effect of all these phenomenon also ended in the dramatic result of dune landscapes and the infertility of thousands of hectares of land. Today, the expansion of the desert landscape towards the north of Algeria is evident from the series of mobile dune formations on the southern fringe of the high steppe plains.

On the social and economic level, the impact of desertification is shown in:

i. The reduction of the availability of fodder;

ii. The risks of raising cattle; and

iii. The breakdown of traditional pastoral system due, among other reasons, to population growth and the evolution of society.

In the face of this complex process that affects the social milieu as much as ecosystems, action to be undertaken has to be global in nature and integrated. It has to focus on all factors of land degradation by protective measures and by development that takes into account the natural functions of ecosystems and the economic and social aspirations of people. However, first, the extent of desertification has to be examined

As mentioned earlier, the areas affected by desertification in the steppe and predesert regions are found mostly to the south of the Atlas between isohyets 400 and 100 mm. These vast lands can be classified as follows:

i. Substeppe regions of an agro-pastoral and sylvo-pastoral nature threatened by desertification;

ii. Steppe regions with some sylvo-pastoral enclosures, exposed to less sever desertification;

iii. Presaharan regions where steppe vegetation is less abundant and/or the phenomenon of desertification is more advanced; and

iv. Saharan regions where desertification has reached a peak and vegetation cover is practically gone, except in some micro-zones where palms and some crops still exist.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION

Since it does not seem that any significant climatic changes have occurred since the end of the nineteenth century, the causes of increased desertification must lie in the pressure exerted by humans and animals on nature notably through more aggressive technologies and the abandonment of traditional transhuman systems for new forms of pastoral management. These phenomenon are manifest in the mismanagement of water resources particularly during periods of significant dryness, lasting several years, linked to a cycle of rainfall characterized by great inter annual variability.

The main causes of desertification are the following:

i. The initiation of cultivation, facilitated today by the mechanization of farming on slopes, is a prime cause. The removal of vegetative cover from steppes has developed even in the region where annual rainfall averages 100 to 200 mm, a fact that indicates how seriously the maintenance of the ecological balance has been affected and that points to increasingly intensified desertification which is often irreversible.

ii. Overgrazing is another cause of land degradation. Because of increasing demographic pressure, livestock numbers have not decreased on the average, even when the space left for grazing has decreased due to cultivation. In addition to the potential extinction of threatened species and the development of persistent exotic species, overgrazing has led to reduction of vegetation cover for vivacious species and opened the door to land degradation. These phenomenon are underscored by the quasi disappearance of the great transhumance routes and the sedentarization of the population. The animal pressure rate, depending on the particular situation, is estimated to be 1.5 to 3 times higher than the underlying pastoral carrying capacity.

iii. The eradication of woody species, although less striking than the two preceding phenomena, is worsening. It is essentially cultivation on slopes that causes this. Utilization of natural gas has lessened the pressure on such natural vegetation.

iv. The salinization of earth from the development of irrigation, as well as inappropriate use of water, contributed to an increase of land surfaces sterilized by salt, another aspect of desertification.

The ALGERIAN EXPERIENCE IN COMBATTING DESERTIFICATION

Algeria has initiated development activities to master ecological degradation and to begin the development of long neglected regions whose increasing populations have been more and more impoverished. The growing importance given to combatting desertification as an element of national development has been crystallized through the launching of a vast programme named "the green belt."

Types of Programmes

The first high priority steps in an ambitious program were to protect and improve the existing vegetation; reestablish tree populations; reforest appropriate lands; develop agricultural and pastoral lands; combat sand encroachment and dune fixation; mobilize underground and surface water resources; and finally to instal necessary infrastructures such as tracks and roads. To this end about 200,000 ha have recently been examined and assessed.

Reforestation

Reforestation has taken place on about 140,000 ha., mainly by introducing the Alep Pine (Pinus halepensis). The choice of this species depended on the fact that the green belt region corresponds to its natural habitat. Nevertheless, in the course of the last years, other species have been introduced to fulfill the objectives of ecological protection, wood production, fodder production, and dune fixation.

Thus reforestation occurs at two levels. One attempts to diversify tree species by adapting them to ecosystems while the other consists of a series of integrated actions to benefit the populations concerned.

Examples of the introduced tree species include, aside from the Alep Pine, the green cypress (Cupressus sympervirens), the cupressus arizonica, the Atlas pistachio (Pistaciaatlantica), acacias (A. Cyanophylla, A. farnesiana), and the Bohemian olive (Eleagnus angustifolia).

Such reforestation for ecological protection purposes is generally undertaken on slopes which are subject to erosion; on dune areas; on banks of springs and ravines and on cattle routes. It also aims to set up wind breaks for small urban centers and economic infrastructures.

Tree Plantations

Actions to establish tree plantations in pastoral ares aim at improving land degraded from overgrazing, and at increasing fodder availability, by a rational use of resources. At the same time, such action helps decrease the pressure of overgrazing on mountain forests.

Tree plantations, now covering about 10,000 ha, are an important experiment with promising potential. These plantations are carried out mainly using Atriplex (Atriplex halimus, atriplex nummalaria, Atriplex canescens) and cactus (Opuntia ficus indica), as well as other leguminous trees whose fruit and leaves are eaten by livestock. The exploitation of these tree plantations by breeders has, however, to be rationally organized so as to be able to insure their durability.

Projects of dune fixation covering an area of nearly 5,000 ha have been launched. The fixing of dunes is undertaken in two stages by fencing with dry palms and other materials and by planting adapted species such as: Tamarix (T. Articulata, T. Gallica, T. Africana), Acacia (A. Cyclops, A. Farnesiana), Proposis (P. Juliflora), casuarine(C. Tenaacisssima), and Atriplex ( A. Nummularia, Atriplex canesceans, A. sp. Parkinsonia aculcata).

Fruit Culture and Agricultural Development

This aspect aims essentially at achieving four objectives:

i. The introduction of rustic fruit arboriculture in the context of small family enterprises to increase and diversify sources of income (the main species used are apricot, fig and almond trees);

ii. The management of small hydro-agricultural perimeters to develop agricultural and fodder production;

iii. The development of socio-economic infrastructure and themobilization of water resources; and

iv. The development of transportation links for the opening of steppe regions and the creation of water points.

LESSONS AND EXPERIENCES

Past experiences has allowed Algeria to explore possibilities of development, to test plans of intervention, and to provide tools of implementation in the field, as well as a judicial and institutional base. Substantial technical experience has been accumulated mainly in the areas of reforestation, dune fixation and pastoral improvement.

The contribution of national services has been decisive in establishing units necessary for the achievement of reforestation as well as the installation of a system of nurseries and other infrastructure. However, due to project complexities, its success to date has been minimal in comparison to the dimension and seriousness of the problem.

The analysis of obstacles to the implementation of planned objectives has to take into consideration the improvement of the quality of work and the elaboration of real integrated development programmes in the areas concerned. The research and study which still need to be strengthened must constitute the main forces behind developments.

The Combatting of desertification has thus been characterized by intensive actions. However, the institutional framework and the measures adopted did not permit sufficient building upon acquired experience, or real efficiency. A rapid overview shows that:

i. There is still a lack of knowledge about desertified regions despite the considerable date collected and analysis made;

ii. It is currently difficult to give a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the extent of desertification and its consequences; and

iii. The considerable work undertaken to address desertification has been insufficiently focused, dispersed, lacking in scientific rigor and inefficient in the field.

Several questions then arise in the context of combatting desertification:

i. What are the factors whose modification would be likely to affect ecological balances and thereby reverse the process of desertification;

ii. What are the imbalances induced by the process of desertification and how do they concretely manifest themselves;

iii. How can the risks incurred to ground vegetation be evaluated; and

iv. How can current types of land use be modified to decrease risks of land degradation on the one hand and to begin the restoration of biota for the benefit of the populations concerned on the other hand?

All plans of action would thus have to address these questions and take into account the following steps:

i. Inventorying resources at the local level and evaluating their capacity and potential;

ii. Ensuring continuity ecosystems by establishment of a series of monitoring centers to track ecological, economic and social changes in arid, semi-arid, sub-desert and desert regions;

iii. Taking into account periods of cyclic dryness that affect arid and semi-arid regions in the context of actions related to the use of land, the use of resources and the management of land;

iv. Strengthening national human, scientific and technical potential in order to assure effective implementation;

v. Strengthening research/analysis potential to focus on acquired experience and practical and theoretical knowledge; and

vi. Bringing about administrative and technical reorganization and the decentralization of field and research results.

Experience equally shows that, in all strategies for combatting desertification, two fundamental elements have to be taken in account:

i. First it is important to preserve ecosystems in threatened regions by extremely prudent management of available natural resources; and

ii. The second step is then to gradually rehabilitate degraded and disadvantaged regions by developing their productive capacity and assessing the original value of their resources.

THE YEMENI EXPERIENCE IN COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND ITS IMPACTS

Presented by : Mr. Mahmoud Shidiwah, Director of DC Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, Yemen

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of Yemen is situated in the southwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula. It occupies an area of 53.8 million hectares, of which 2.9 million are dryland and has a population of about 14 million inhabitants. The bulk of Yemen consists of slopes with little soil or dry or semi-dry deserts. Of the cultivatable area, only 34.5% or a million hectares are actually cultivated every year because of the meagre rains and the scarcity of underground water. 4.1 million hectares of the total area are classified as forests and 16 million hectares as rangelands. There are no real forests, however, and the lands designated as such all have a variety of wood trees. Rangelands include areas covered with bushes as well as those covered with grass.

There are two major areas in Yemen that suffer from severe desertification. The first is the coastal plains known for their moving sands which pose a threat to agricultural land, towns and roads and which expose the areas to salinization problems. The second the mountains which extend all over the country and are exposed to soil erosion and degradation. 97 per cent of the country is said to be, in varying degrees, affected by desertification.

Prospects for the future are that unless urgent and adequate measures are taken, desertification will affect most land uses at increasing rates in some cases. Such measures will require financial and human resources. Also required is the speedy implementation of the Desertification Control Plan worked out in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme and the Economic and Social Commission for South West Asia. Intensification of national efforts and collaboration at the regional and international levels will be needed for the implementation of Plan projects and the execution of short-term priority programmes as well as the long-term desertification control strategy.

The Yemen Republic, itself a developing country, faces urgent challenges such as sustainable development, environmental protection, preservation of natural resources, and desertification control These are problems that require speedy solution, a conclusion shared by the UN Plan of Action to Combat Desertification, which states that "Action to Combat Desertification is required urgently before the costs of rehabilitation rise beyond practical possibility or before the opportunity to act is lost forever."

The UN Plan of Action also stresses the need to link national desertification plan to overall development plans. For this reason, desertification control has been listed as one of the objectives Yemen's Third Five-Year Economic and Social Development Plan. The Government has, moreover, given top priority to development of the agricultural sector and has included desertification control in the seven objectives of agricultural development, giving it priority there too. The Government is meanwhile giving considerable attention to water resources. It has also enacted legislations aimed at rationalizing and organizing the use of natural resources as well as at developing and protecting these resources. Such legislation includes the Environment Protection Act and the Forests Act.

We view popular participation in desertification control as a central and instrumental factor in combating this phenomenon. Several voluntary and non-governmental organizations already play a very important role in this regard; they include the Yemen Environment Protection Society, the Yemen Women Association, the Boy Scouts and Girl Guides, and Student Unions. Also playing a major role are the local councils for collective development, professional associations, and people's organizations concerned with a forestation and with desertification control. The latter have contributed considerably to the enhancement of popular awareness of the importance of forestation as an instrument of desertification control.

Individual initiative plays an equally important part and farmers frequently take measures to protect their lands from desertification, often drawing upon the services of extension personnel. Two other activities deserve special mention; they are those of Rural Women's Development and Forest Extension. Both play an effective part in combating desertification and in enhancing awareness in local community circles, which they mobilize for common purpose.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION

According to UNEP and other UN desertification assessment criteria and related maps, desertification in the Yemeni Republic is caused mainly by harsh climate conditions, misuse of vegetation cover, exhaustion of water resources, and non-compliance with proper agricultural instructions. Other reasons include the fragile and sensitive nature of the terrain and prevailing socioeconomic conditions. These various factors will now be described in some detail with the aim of showing how 97 per cent of the total area of the country came to be affected, in one way or another, by desertification.

The Climatological Factors

The country is characterized by irregular precipitation and scarcity of rain, particularly in areas along the coast. When rain does fall, it often takes the form of quick showers on small areas. Rain rarely covers the entire country. Irregularity of precipitation, especially in mountain areas, contributes to soil erosion caused by intermittent strong showers. Erosion varies from one area to another, depending on slopes and the density of the green cover.

Drought

Drought too varies in severity and duration from one area to another; it remains, however, a feature of most parts of the country. It constitutes a contributing factor in wind erosion mainly areas being constantly exposed to strong winds.

The Misuse of Vegetation Cover (Rangelands and Forests)

One of the major reasons for desertification in rangeland areas in Yemen is the cultivation of natural rangelands, particularly in rain-scarce areas. Ploughing and preparing the land for cultivation mean the removal of vegetation cover and the segmentation of soil. This makes land more vulnerable to wind erosion. As rangelands recede in this way, animal carrying loads increase on the remaining parts; this contributes to their further degradation. This is a familiar pattern in most of the country's rangelands. Another major desertification factor is over-cutting of forest trees, which initially provide wood for use in construction and as a substitute for fuel. More recently, over-felling has extended to vast areas of woodlands which have been denuded of their green cover and left vulnerable to water and wind erosion, particularly in high and very high areas. Yet another factor is the cutting of trees for cultivation purposes in order to meet the increasing demand for food crops and agricultural products. Furthermore, there is overgrazing which has been a major factor in rangelands and forest degradation.

Improper Agricultural practices

The ploughing of terraces in the direction of the slope has been a major cause of soil deterioration, particularly where deep furrows are made. The non-rotation of crops is another reason for desertification on account of the ensuing imbalance of nutrients in the soil, which leads to its exhaustion, segmentation, and exposure to erosion.

The Nature of the terrain

Desertification is sometimes due to the nature of the terrain with topography often playing an accelerating role. Examples include sharp slopes, proximity to coastal areas with consequent exposure to salinization, poor drainage and the related vulnerability to alkalinization.

Depletion of Water Resources

Water is the determining factor in agriculture, which has come in recent years to depend considerably on underground water because of the insufficiency of rainwater. But scarcity of rain eventually affects underground water levels and this in turn raises pumping costs and might reduce returns from agriculture.

Economic and Social Conditions

Country people migrate to cities for a number of reasons, including the search for better incomes, drought, and poor returns from agriculture. Such migration is a major desertification factor for the following reasons. It involves abandoning land and terraces, or leaving them fallow for many seasons, or even years, thus making them vulnerable to erosion. In fact, the abandonment of terraces amounts to a national disaster, for terraces are a national treasure built over the years in accordance with time-tested methods of soil and water conservation. Following a meticulous order, terraces are to be found high up on mountains and they constitute, to this day, a major cornerstone in agricultural production. Another desertification factor is expansion around the major cities at the expense of already scarce agricultural lands. This factor links with the first factor because urban expansion is the result of population pressure caused by country-to-city migration.

Strategy objectives

The main objective of the strategy is to end desertification by the year 2010. The following goals fall within this main objective:

i. To ensure a definite end to desertification;

ii. To effect a change in people's attitude towards the problem of desertification. The new attitude must view desertification as the gravest danger that there is to the basic requirements of food production and subsequently to all food security and self-sufficiency pre-requisites;

iii. To reaffirm that desertification control is a fundamental precondition for any increase in agricultural and animal production, for environmental improvement, and for the provision of better living conditions; and

iv. To ensure that desertification control become a major cornerstone in the development process and that the basic elements in the desertification control plan embody constituents which are essential and necessary for comprehensive rural development;

Basic Assumptions

i. Proposed long-term and short-term programmes, including projects, should be the subject of periodic reviews in order to incorporate the changes required by the dynamic nature of desertification.

ii. Recent oil discoveries will, in the long-run, solve strategic problems and overcome obstacles created by lack of financial resources.

iii. There should be coordination and mutual support among all national projects regardless of their geographical location as well as between national and regional projects.

iv. Future economic and social development change people to be better aware of the desertification problem.

v. The adequacy of desertification control projects should not be measured by the usual financial and economic feasibility criteria.

vi. Desertification control requires long-term commitment. Therefore, the political will of the government, and the priority it gives to desertification control, must be maintained at a constant level and for a long time.

Desertification Long-Term Assessment and Land Management Improvement Programme

This programme covers all activities connected with the assessment and monitoring of desertification. These activities are long-term per se and should be pursued actively until the very end of the programme in 2010 and beyond, with a view to detecting any indications of relapse. The programme should determine areas affected by desertification and those threatened by it.

The programmes should include land management improvement schemes in affected or vulnerable areas. This work would require comprehensive measures in the social, economic, institutional, legislative and technical fields. It would also require special case management in the light of complete and sound data. However, initiation of work should not be dependent on total completion of all site studies.

The following is a list of the tasks proposed under this programme:

i. The production of a desertification map using a provisional methodology for assessment and mapping;

ii. The production of a land use map; and

iii. Evaluation and follow-up of desertification and its causes in selected areas in Al Jaf, Ma'reb, in mountain areas near southern coast, the Abin estuary, Lahj, and Wadi Hadramawt.

Public Sustenance Programme

Desertification is almost impossible to check and control without public involvement. Recommendation 3 in the UN Plan of Action to Combat Desertification lists the various kinds of public activities required. In the past, people in Yemen, drawing on their long and vast experience in agriculture, discovered and devised ways of dealing with land degradation and desertification. Testifying to this are their methods of water harvesting and conservation, land terracing, and surface dam and water diversion network building. Public awareness sub-programmes would enhance people's knowledge about desertification. Public debate on the phenomenon of desertification and on the substance and implementation of the various projects should be encouraged. The success of these sub-programmes can be ensured by drawing upon the following positive factors:

i. The prevailing collective work spirit manifested regularly by voluntary organisations, youth and women's organisations and local collective development councils; and

ii. The fact that television transmission covers the entire country and can be used for guidance and information purposes with regard to desertification.

DESERTIFICATION CONTROL MEASURES

Areas of Corrective Measures

This part has received the greatest attention in the UN Plan of Action to Combat Desertification. In fact, out of the 22 national and regional action recommendations, 7 deal with corrective measures. These recommendations are:

i. That efficient planning, development, and management of water resources be introduced as part of measures to combat desertification;

ii. That measures be taken to ameliorate the condition of degraded rangelands, to introduce suitable systems of rangeland livestock and wildlife management, to develop diversified and integrated systems of production and to improve the living conditions of the inhabitants of these areas;

iii. That comprehensive measures be adopted for the conservation of water and the conservation and improvement of soil in rain-fed agricultural areas;

iv. That measures be taken to prevent and control waterlogging, salinization and alkalinization;

v. That existing vegetation be maintained and protected, and that special measures be taken to revegetate denuded areas and then maintain and protect them to promote soil conservation, and to stabilize moving sands;

vi. That all necessary steps be taken to ensure the conservation of flora and fauna in areas subject or likely to be subject to desertification; and

vii. That national or intra-regional systems for monitoring climatic, hydrological or pedological conditions and the ecological conditions of land, water, plants, and animals to be established or strengthened in areas affected or likely to be affected by desertification.

The UN plan, recognizing that these measures would remedy current desertification-caused damage and prevent future deterioration, devotes considerable attention to this section and provides extensive details. Once put into effect, these measures yield tangible economic effects that bring benefit to the population. Yet, a 1984 general assessment showed that actual measures taken in the field over the past 7 years had been rather ineffective, and that most desertification control activities were in the category of support activities such as training and research. Such support activities are indeed essential in the long run, but there is some more urgent need for work in the field.

Examples of Required Field Work

The strategy, for the reasons stated above, focuses on the following field activities:

i. The development, improvement, and maintenance of public, private, and communal rangelands and forests;

ii. The establishment of more nurseries to produce the appropriate local and imported, forest and rangeland tree and bush varieties:

iii. The forestation of slopes, marginal production areas, abandoned terraces, and uncultivated lands;

iv. The improvement of available fodder plants and the intensification of rangelands cultivation;

v. The implementation in rangeland areas of the improved reserve, "Hima", system which would ensure the rationalization of grazing through tribal or communal arrangements; and

vi. The enactment of the necessary legislations for the conservation of rangeland and forest resources.

Measures Related to Soil Conservation in Mountain Areas

i. The cultivation of slopes along contour lines in order to prevent landslides by reducing the volume and velocity of water currents;

ii. The construction of water breakers at suitable distances in the course of strong water currents in order to prevent furrowing, soil erosion and floods; and

iii. the discontinuation of logging in exhausted forests and rangelands with a view to protecting the soil from water and wind erosion;

Measures Related to Soil Conservation in Marginal Areas

i. The prohibition of over-grazing; and

ii. Control of logging and firewood collecting.

Measures related to soil conservation in cultivated areas

i. Repair of corroded terraces;

ii. Employment of feasible reclamation methods in the cultivation of slopes;

iii. Application of appropriate agricultural rotation in order to keep the soil constantly covered by crop vegetation;

iv. Revitalization of soils by the periodic application of natural and chemical fertilizers.

Water Conservation Measures

i. Construction of small dams and water reservoirs in appropriate areas in order to store enough water to recharge underground aquifers and to employ supplementary irrigation when necessary;

ii. The implementation of rainwater harvesting techniques in order to save irrigation water for rain fed crops;

iii. The use of water-saving irrigation, methods such as drop irrigation and sprinkling;

iv. Avoidance of over irrigation, which causes waterlogging and soil salinity, and

iv. Rationalization of well digging and monitoring of underground water use.

PROGRAMMES AND PROJECTS

Several sub-programmes and projects come within the scope of desertification control corrective measures:

Moving Sand Stabilization Sub-Programme

This sub-programme includes projects in Tihama, Al Jauf, Ma'reb, a number of affected areas in the plains along the southern coast (in Maifa'a and the Bana estuary for example), and in Wadi Hadramawt. The number of such projects should be such that they can protect agricultural areas from the onslaught of sand dunes by the year 2010.

The Ma'reb shifting sand stabilization project provides for the protection of some 850 hectares of fertile agricultural land over a three year period. The major objectives of the project are to prepare studies and collect data for use in the preparation of other projects within the scope of the programme.

Degradation Control Sub-Programme

This sub-programme is concerned with problems of soil fertility deterioration, water and wind erosion, soil salinization and alkalinization and soil waterlogging. It is also concerned with all other manifestations of desertification and natural environmental degradation. All projects proposed under this sub-programme for the reclamation of vegetation cover, and the management of water basins and rangelands, must be integrated, multi-purpose, and including a variety of elements.

Reevaluation Programme

This sub-programme aims at the readjustment of ongoing projects in order to prevent their collapse, if left unchanged and exposed to the effects of desertification. Minor changes involving the addition or alteration of simple components can forestall major desertification-related threats. Examples are the planting of trees to combat wind and water erosion and the improvement of drainage to prevent soil salinization.

Socioeconomic Aspects Programme

This programme concerns itself with two questions:

i. The impact of desertification processes on people's welfare and social condition; and

ii. Behaviour and socioeconomic systems as a primary factor in the desertification process.

iii. The programme's concern with the impact of desertification on people is translated into projects that can be grouped under the heading of integrated rural development projects. They aim generally at improving the living conditions, and raising the income of farmers, shepherds, and under- privileged people through the adoption of improved management and advanced technology methods.

The programme's concern with the second issue makes it focus on the various attitudes and traditions that have turned people into victims of subsistence level economies and led them to engage in overgrazing and in activities such as the cultivation of marginal areas and logging, that strip the soil of its natural vegetation cover and bring about desertification.

Projects concerned with either of these two issues should seek to eliminate discrepancies in resources available for development within any one area or among provinces. Such discrepancies tend to have severe effects on the life of the poorest people, who strive to extract a living out of cultivating arid and semi-arid lands in marginal areas. Projects in this programme would have to presume the availability of easy credit for small farmers along with support for necessary production inputs.

Such projects would also have to work in collaboration with other relevant field activities concerned with people's concepts and inclinations. It is therefore important to mount educational projects, particularly in the ecological domain, together with adult literacy campaigns aimed at increasing awareness of the environmental aspects of development and the national use of arid lands. Equally important will be the provision of support to meet the basic needs of the poor. This would be done through collaboration with projects that have similar objectives. Planners of projects within this programme should focus on the benefits to be gained from educating farmers, shepherds, and other rural workers and affording them attractive incentives.

Easy credit remains one of the best means of bringing about changes in the way of life of poor farmers, land tenants, shepherds and the like. In this respect, the agricultural and collective banking sectors can play a major role.

Insurance Against Risks and Effects of Drought Programme

This programme aims at safeguarding against drought by providing assistance to people exposed to drought disasters in desertification-prone areas. People in such areas are known to pursue a variety of strategies to protect themselves against the effects of drought. Official emergency relief work, as well as all related projects, should take account of these strategies and reinforce them, rather than ignore or damage them. In fact, the Yemeni Republic has a rich heritage in this respect which includes the famous "Hima" system, which, for one reason or another, has disappeared throughout the country. It would, however, be possible to work out projects along the lines of this extinct system. Other directions to be followed include the creation of credit mechanisms and the establishment of well-equipped relief centres that would help people come out of disaster with the least losses possible.

Workforce, Science and Technology Programme

This is a programme that undertakes research and training with the objective of reinforcing the scientific and technological capabilities needed for the success of desertification control programmes. Three of the recommendations of the UN Action Plan to Combat Desertification deal with this objective, particularly with regard to planning and management, and to directing research towards seeking alternative or non-conventional sources of energy. Research and training have to be linked to the requirements of development and should be directed towards the solution of various problems faced by the population, particularly those connected with the ever diminishing supply of water for irrigation.

At present, the workforce engaged in desertification control is almost negligible. There are very few qualified and knowledgeable staff in the field and they normally have other responsibilities. The planning, preparation and implementation of projects for this plan would require hundreds of professionals and technicians. The training of such numbers is an immense task that requires prompt action.

Institutional Requirements Programme

The United Nations Plan of Action to Combat Desertification adopted in 1977 calls for the establishment of strong national bodies to undertake immediately tasks relevant to desertification control.

International Collaboration Control Programme

This programme covers all anti-desertification regional projects requiring more than national efforts. An example of such projects is the monitoring of desertification factors by means of advanced satellite technology as well as climate monitoring equipment. Preventive measures include transnational green belts and inter-country joint water management. There is finally the area of training and exchange of information, an area which, by its very nature, requires considerable regional and international collaboration.

Since most developing countries continue to find difficulty in securing funding for their desertification control projects, the very implementation of this programme requires commitment to explore all possibilities of bilateral and multilateral assistance.

Priorities for 1991-1995

The eight basic priority programmes include 41 projects. The Corrective Measures programme's share of these projects is 31, leaving ten for the remaining seven programmes, an arrangement commensurate with the recommendations of the international action plan's general progress assessment which stresses the importance of field work.

THE SAUDI EXPERIENCE IN COMBATING DESERTIFICAITON AND ITS IMPACTS

Presented by : Dr. Ali S. Altokhais, Head of Delegation, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

BACKGROUND

Location and climate:

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia lies in the desert belt which includes parts of North Africa and South West Asia. Saudi Arabia lies between latitudes 160 and 320N and longitudes 340 36' and 560E. The area of the Kingdom is about 2.25 million square km and this represents approximately 1.4% of the total land surface area of the world and 80% of the area of the Arabian Peninsula. Topography differs from one area to another and all types of land forms are found including plateaus, mountains, coastal plains and desert dunes.

Because of the large land mass and topographical variations, considerable climatic variation exist in the Kingdom. Generally, however, the climate is continental and dry with high summer temperature and relatively cold winter temperatures. Day and night temperatures have a wide range. Precipitation is extremely low and highly variable.

Climatic characteristics of the Kingdom can be summarized as follows:

Air temperature

Average air temperatures during summer months (June, July, August) range from 23OC to 35OC and maximum temperatures of 48OC in the interior area are common. Average winter temperatures (Dec., Jan, Feb.) range from 8 to 27OC with below OOC temperatures in northern areas.

Relative humidity

The average relative humidity during summer is less than 25% in the interior areas while in costal areas it ranges from 50 to 60%. In winter, humidity reaches up to 50% in the interior areas and ranges from 60 to 70% in the coastal areas, often reaching as high as 90% in some parts.

Rainfall

Average annual rainfall is about 90 mm with considerable variations from one area to another. The monsoon rains in the southwest exceed 500 mm. In other parts of the Kingdom, it ranges from 50-70 mm in the north west, 50-100 mm in the east and northeast and 75-100 mm in the central regions. Year to year variability and seasonal variations are high, with low reliability in the low rainfall areas.

Evaporation

Average annual evaporation in the Kingdom is about 3000 mm per year with the highest annual evaporation recorded in Sileil (5000 mm) and the lowest in the high altitude areas of Abha (2300 mm).

Winds

Winds have strong influence on the hydrologic cycle. The direction and speed of winds affect geographical and natural features of the country, since winds carry both moist and dry air. Winds of 5-15 kilometre per hour are common.

POLICIES AND PROJECTS FOR DESERTIFICATION CONTROL

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has long realized the need for conservation of renewable natural resources. To meet this need, basic data was needed on ecological systems and their components of soil, water, vegetation, livestock and wildlife resources. Consultant firms were contracted to carry out surveys and supply necessary data for resource planning. Based on the studies of these consultant firms, the Kingdom was divided into eight hydro-geological units. Additional studies were carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture, which included the socio- economics of nomadic production, range productivity and carrying capacities.

Based on these studies, the Kingdom took measures which were both preventive and curative in nature in arresting desertification and its impacts.

Preventive Measures in Combating Desertification:

Range and forest lands considered to be susceptible to degradation were protected. Large exclosures were fenced for grazing control. Approximately twenty nine locations were fenced for forest protection in seven land units. Twenty one range areas were also protected from grazing by fencing. In addition to these, range monitoring exclosures were established at different range sites. Large areas were also fenced for research and as demonstration sites. Some of the protected areas were set aside as drought reserves.

In 1978 the Council of Ministers adopted Forestry and Range regulation 392 and passed it as a law in accordance with royal Decree M/22 of 3.5.1398H. The Ministry of Agriculture formulated the bylaws. The objectives of the forestry and range law and its bylaws were to control and stop some of the activities that lead to desertification. Regulations were passed on the following:

i. Forests in fragile habitats susceptible to deterioration can not be exploited.

ii. Forest areas in valley bottoms cannot be exploited for farming.

iii. Areas with more than 40% slope cannot be cropped or cleared.

iv. Areas used as control of sand encroachment cannot be exploited.

v. Tree cutting and uprooting of plants in their native habitats for fuel were regulated. Only people with special permits form the Ministry of Agriculture and Water are allowed to cut.

vi. Burning was completely forbidden in forest and range lands

Curative Measures in Combating Desertification

About fifty one sites in forest areas were planted with trees. In addition to this, extensive dune fixation areas were planted with trees and shrubs. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia made great efforts in afforestation of the streets in cities and villages through both specialized programmes and through the "annual week of the tree". The result have been extensive increases in surface cover of trees and greenery. The tree week programme executed in the Kingdom has been one of the most effective programmes in improving environmental quality and control of desertification impacts. Approximately 6.8 million trees were planted between 1978 and 1992 through this programme. The Ministry of Agriculture and Water also established twenty nine forest nurseries in different regions of the Kingdom for it.

Range Improvement and Development Projects

Rangelands constitute approximately 76% of the total land area in the Kingdom. The government put considerable emphasis on conservation and relieving grazing pressure from range resources. Several corrective measures were taken in this endeavour.

i. A heavy feed subsidy to relieve the range from severe grazing pressure, particularly in drought years. (This programme substantially improved animal productivity and checked range deterioration due to overgrazing of the vegetation cover);

ii. Increased unit area production of fodder crops in range areas under irrigation not because of its economic importance but because of the role of vegetative cover in protection of the environment and desertification control; and

iii. Planning projects implemented by the Department of Forestry and Range, including preventive and curative measures of fencing areas for applied range improvement work, and reseeding of perennial native species in rangelands. (Nearly 60 sites in rangelands in 14 districts spread throughout the Kingdom were reseeded. The development plan also included water spreading through diversion dykes, earthern embankments and contour trenching. This significantly contributed to the successful establishment of both natural and reseeded species. Approximately 725 projects of this type were executed in different parts of the Kingdom.)

Sand Dune Stabilization Projects

Sand dune movements and their encroachment on cities, roads and agricultural lands are one of the most prominent features of desertification and one of the most urgent problems calling for control and preventive measures against its dangerous economic and environmental impacts. The Kingdom started large scale sand dune stabilization (4500 hectares) in Al Hassa. More then ten million seedlings of trees and shrubs were planted. Trees established in the area stand at height of 10 to 15 meters at present. Successful stabilization of the sand dunes led to the declaration of the area as a national park properly managed by the National Park Service. The aesthetic and recreational value of the area is now enjoyed by visitors. Similar project are now underway in Wadi Dawasir to stop sand encroachment in Al Khumesien city and its surrounding farms.

National Parks

Specialized habitats with particular ecological niches were protected for conservation of wildlife species, for demonstration, and for recreation purposes for both present and future generations. There are three principal national parks:

Assir National Park is the largest park in the Kingdom with a total area of 450,000 hectares. There is a high diversity of habitats in the park. It is currently divided into four important units:

i. Dolgan is an area of approximately 440 hectares dominated by Acacia, grasses and lichens.

ii. Al Qara occupies an area of approximately 420 hectares supporting juniper trees.

iii. Al Souda, with an area of 883 hectares at an elevation of 3000 meters above sea level, is considered the largest land unit and the most pleasant part of the park. Because of its high elevation, the area is relatively cool and foggy in the summer. The area has the highest diversity of natural flora and funa. The flora is dominated by juniper species.

iv. Al Hadba (plateau) is in a sand area with a rugged topography with tens of hectares and is a natural sanctuary for falcon birds. All recreational services are available throughout the park.

Sa'ad National Park is a recreational park of 300 hectares approximately 110 km east of Riyadh. Nearly 40,000 trees of different types were planted. All recreational services were also established and are currently in use.

Al Ahssa National Park has the objective to protect, the agricultural lands, roads and cities of Al Ahssa from sand encroachment.

Agricultural Expansion in Desertified Regions

Agricultural development in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was based on the criterion of availability of good soils and good quality water. Thus, in 1967, a policy was adopted to distribute fallow lands for farming, the objective of which was to increase surface area for agriculture and to achieve self sufficiency in basic crops.

Exploitation of fallow lands and their distribution are based on the following:

i. Distribution of fallow suitable land for farming, particularly exploitation for agriculture in those lands susceptible to desertification; and

ii. Non-exploitation of rangelands, forest lands and valley bottoms for farming.

Based on the policy of fallow land distribution, extensive areas suitable for agriculture were put into production with different types of both cereal and horticultural crops. This lead to extensive increases in the surface area of green belts and contributed substantially to checking sand encroachment in the more fragile, degradable ecosystems.

In 1989, a desertification map was produced. The map shows sand dune affected areas, soil erosion caused by water, slat affected lands, vegetation cover loss in watershed areas and their effects on surrounding areas. The map is the basis for delineation of areas that are susceptible to desertification.

The Kingdom is currently planning to initiate a follow up project of farmed areas for agricultural crops throughout the Kingdom. The objective of the project is to evaluate the effect of farming and the extent of land deterioration, their causes and remedial measures, particularly regarding salinization of agricultural soil.

Water Resource Development and Conservation

i. Extensive surveys and studies were conducted throughout the Kingdom regarding water resource availability, quantity and quality. The studies were based on hydro-geological formations for ground water, surface water and the major valley bottoms and their water pools.

ii. The Ministry established a monitoring network for both ground and surface water status. The monitoring net includes hydrological studies by gauging major ephemeral streams, records of rainfall and other climatic factors and monitoring of underground water.

iii. Based on water resource studies and their monitoring, a considerable number of projects aim at helping the Kingdom's efforts in combating desertification. These projects included:

- Construction of different sized dams to recharge ground water in valley formations and to supply water for both human and agricultural use;

- Drilling of bore holes in many parts of the Kingdom for human use and tree planting;

- Afforestation in the Kingdom and particularly in major cities, through the use of treated sewage water; and

- Desalinization of sea water for human use by establishing desalinization plants in the coastal areas of both the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea. (These desalinization plants provide millions of cubic meters of water to the major coastal cities and large number of inner cities of the Kingdom. This alternative water source has significant impact on ground water conservation).

Water Resource Conservation Regulations:

Royal Decree M/34 of 1980 established the basis for water conservation, water pollution control, water resource utilization, and distribution and drilling of wells.

Range Research Activities

A complete range monitoring network was established in the northern part of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. There are currently ten range monitoring units in the major habitat types of northern rangelands. Vegetation is continuously monitored in protected and similar areas open for communal grazing. Rain gauges are found in all the exclosures. The data is used for range condition and trend analysis.

Three range research stations with an area of 8000 hectares equipped with complete weather recording equipment, were established in the northern rangelands. Extensive studies cover vegetation changes with different management inputs, land productivity, range use suitability, range animal performance, range carrying capacities and the influence of climatic factors on range productivity. Range improvement trials are also carried out.

A seed propagation station for native perennial range plants was established in the northern rangelands. Currently 24 perennial plants with an approximate production of 3.5 tons of seeds per year are found in the station. The purpose of this project was both conservation of native genetic resource from extinction and use of the seeds in rehabilitation of degraded rangelands using adapted species. The project is currently under expansion and similar projects are in the pipe line to be established in different regions of the Kingdom having different plant communities. One such station is to be established in Al Washam.

Forage shrub nurseries were established in different regions to be used both for research and forage development purposes. Considerable interest was also shown in the use of native shrubs for landscaping so seedlings of those shrubs are distributed during the annual tree planting week.

Limited research (due to be expanded) is going on regarding the use of halophytes for reclamation of saline soils and use of saline water for halophyte establishment. Finaly, the central national herbarium contains most or all of the flora in the Kingdom; a regional herbarium for the northern rangelands also is in operation.

Planned Range and Forest Projects

i. Survey and mapping of range and forest lands in the Kingdom. (The purpose of this project is to supply a data base and vegetation map of range and forest lands. This map will be used in conjunction with the soil and hydrology maps for proper resource planning and management.);

ii. Establishment of a range seed multiplication centre and range improvement and development projects;

iii. Expansion and reforestation in areas where forests have already been cleared, particularly in the south western region of the Kingdom and some of the wadi beds, streams and oases;

iv. Construction of concrete barriers in oases along with cluster trees to protect them from vehicular impacts that bring both soil compaction and soil erosion that eventually lead to loss of vegetation cover;

v. Completion of the seed and gene banks;

vi. Establishment of central nurseries to produce seedling of different types of wild shrubs.

vii. Training of specialist in the area of renewable natural resources, particularly in forestry and range management. (The planned programme includes short term practical training both for middle and higher level technicians in collaboration with countries that are advanced in these disciplines. Another component of the planned programme is sending graduates currently working in the field to acquire M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees.); and

viii. Initiation of intensive range and forestry extension programmes stressing the dangers of over utilization of renewable natural resources through over grazing, tree cutting and other none judicious use of those resources.

INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES OF THE SAUDI GOVERNMENT

The above mentioned efforts represent the activities of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the field of combating desertification and mitigating its impacts at the national level. However, there are successful international efforts which have also been made. These efforts can be classified into two categories: Cooperation with regional and international organisations and bilateral cooperation with selected countries.

The following represent part of the Saudi support to the countries most affected by severe drought and desertification:-

i. Saudi Arabia has cooperated with some other countries in the International Food Programme for 22 years. About $326 million has been spent so far by the Saudi government. There are 38 countries benefiting from this programme, 22 of which are located in Africa.

ii. Since 1981, Saudi Arabia has spent more than $140 million to provide urgent help to some African countries that suffer from severe droughts and hunger. About $17 million was allocated for food supplies, and $123 million for drilling 3570 water wells to provide people with potable water.

THE JORDANIAN EXPERIENCE IN COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND ITS IMPACTS

Presented by: Mr. Batr W. Al-Qudah, Ministry of Agriculture

GENERAL FEATURES

Location

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is located between latitude 29 d -33 d N and longitudes 35 d - 39 d E. The total area is about 89,200 sq km or 89,200,000 dunum.

Climate

Jordan has a Mediterranean climate characterized by predominant winter rainfall, while the summer is dry and hot. The total precipitation varies greatly from year to year as well as in its distribution during the season. The rainy season extends from October till May, being heaviest between November and March. Rainfall average from less then 50 mm in the eastern deserts to 600 mm in the high plateau areas of North Jordan. Relative humidity reaches its highest level of 72% during winter months (December - February) then it gradually decreases during spring until it reaches its lowest limit (between 42 - 50%) during summer. The winter winds are mainly S.W. with average speeds of 20 - 30 km/hr. The summer winds are mainly from a S.W. direction.

Geology and Geomorphology

The geological history of Jordan has been outlined by D.J. Burdon (1959) and F. Bender (1974). In these studies descriptions were given of the stratigraphy, structures and tectonics of the country. Epeirogenic movements during the middle Cambrian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Oligocene resulted in marine transgression and regression. As a result, different strara of sandstone, limestone, marls and delimits of different ages and thickness were deposited over a Precambrian Basement of crystalline and metasdiment rock. Rifting, uplifting and formation of the Dead Sea commenced during the tertiary and was accompanied by eruption of flood baselts on the Jabal Al- Arab. During successive stages of uplift in the Cenozoic, the Jordan river opened its course and its rejuvenated tributaries cut back to the east into the Jordan plateau.

The erosion products from a steady rejuvenation of drainage network were deposited in the pleistocene lake Lisan and later as alluvial fan systems in the Jordan Valley and Wadi Araba. The processes continue today in the Dead Sea Rift and in enclosed depressions of the Sirhan and Jafr Basins that lie in the east of Jordan.

From the foregoing Jordan may be divided into seven geological provinces. These are:

i. The rift valley (Wadi Araba, Dead Sea, Jordan Valley) with alluvial and lacustrine deposits.

ii. Mountain Ridge and Northern Highlands east of the rift on Mesozoic sedimentary deposits (sandstones and calcareous rocks) with Basaltic flows in the North.

iii. Southern Mountains on Paleozoic sandstones and Precambrian Basement.

iv. Central Jordanian limestone plateau on Mesozoic calcareous and siliceous sedimentary rocks.

v. Basalt plateau, with basaltic craters and flows.

vi. Azraq-Wadi Sirhan depression with Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary deposits.

vii. Northeastern Desert on Tertiary sedimentary rocks.

Agro-Climatic Zones

Jordan can be divided into four main agro-climatic zones. The patterns of these zones are shown in Fig (3) and they are as follows:

i. The Jordan Valley extends from lake Tiberia in the North to the Gulf of Aqaba in the South. Elevations range from 197 m below sea level to 392 m below sea level near the Dead Sea. The rainfall average is less than 200 mm. It is warm in winter and dry hot in summer. The soils occuring in this zone are associations of Vertisols/Aridisols/Entisols. This area covers about 1 million hectares, 1.1% of Jordan's total area.

ii. The Semi Arid and Semi-Humid zones of Highland Jordan cover the mountain ridges and dissected plateau East of the Jordan Valley. Elevation varies from 700 to 1500 m above Sea Level. Average annual rainfall exceeds 350 mm. Most potentially productive land occurs within this zone and it covers about 2.4 million dunum, 2.5% of the total area of the country. The dominant soils are Alfisols, Vertisols, and Lithic Entisols.

iii. The Steppe Zone lies to the East and South of the Highland zone. The elevation descends gradually towards the East with an average altitude of 600 - 800 m above sea level. Average annual rainfall is 200 - 350 mm. This zone covers about 6.3% of Jordan's total area or about 5.6 million dunum. The dominant soils are Alfisols, Vertisols, Lithic Entisol intergrades and Aridisols.

iv. The Arid Zone (Badiah) includes the dissected peneplain with granite and sandstone mountains of the Eastern and North Eastern and Southern deserts. The average annual rainfall is less then 200 mm. This area covers about 90% of the total area which is about 80.4 million dunum. The dominant soils are Aridisols and Entisols.

LAND USE IN JORDAN AND DESERTIFICATION

Jordanian agriculture has a long history. Farming goes back some 3000 years, and earlier, as shown by discoveries at various old settlements. It is known that the population in acient times was larger than it is now. Large areas of land were reclaimed and utilized. In areas around old settlements many example of Roman terraces, cisterns and reservoirs still exist. It is apparent, for example in the Madaba Plain area south of Amman, that a sophisticated system of water harvesting and storage was tried. This has long been abandoned. On the margins of the steppe zone, remnants of forest cover and olive presses testify to more humid conditions than exist at present. This suggests that the processes of desertification in Jordan commenced in the Roman period.

In recent times, the rate of desertification is at a maximum within the third (steppe) and fourth (padioh) agro-climatic zones. Available information also indicates that incipient desertification has occurred in the second highland zone.

The apparent current trend towards a dry climate, (which prevails at the present time) with frequent droughts, together with misuse of land resources, is considered to be a primary cause of the development of unfavorable soil properties, and degradation of vegetative cover. The misuse of land resources comprises overgrazing in the steppe and desert zones, as well as in the forest land of the Highlands. Overstocking of grazing animals has led to either destruction or severe cutting of plant cover, with subsequent exposure of the soil to the erosion effects of rainfall and runoff. Generation of dust storms by ploughing practices in the steppe zone is an additional factor in estimating soil loss by deflation.

There has been a rapid rate of population growth in Jordan since the 1940s. Cultivation of marginal lands, and unsound practices such as ploughing down slopes, and use of heavy farm machinery have accelerated the rate of degradation of soils and lowered the productivity of the land. Urbanization is also steadily encroaching onto good quality agricultural land in the higher rainfall areas of the Jordanian highlands, reducing the traditional production areas of food crops such as wheat and barley. At the same time there has been an expansion of arable farming onto the more marginal farming areas of the steppe. In these areas, this is accompanied by destruction of the natural vegetation cover and, too often, by crop failure.

Pumping of aquifer water for irrigation has been increasing, without serious attempts to improve recharge into these aquifers by water harvesting methods similar to those apparently successful in the past.

Whilst irrigation has made crop production possible in many areas, the long term effects of fertilizers and pesticides on water quality, as well as the state of the aquifer, have been given only limited attention. Any deterioration of water quality could have marked effects on degradation of the land. However, studies are now commencing in Southern Jordan which will look closely at the whole issue of water supply.

Certain desert irrigation schemes are continuing to experience fairly serious salinity and sodicity problems, due to a combination of unfavorable soil and drainage conditions. Desertification and abandonment of these lands is slowly increasing.

Causes of Desertification in Jordan

Desertification in Jordan is considered to be due to a combination of changing natural conditions over a long (geological) period, and the effects of man on the land within the historical period. Climatic changes in the region are as yet not fully understood, but evidence exists that a significant wet phase occurred between 12000 and 7000 years ago, with, for example permanent lakes at Azraq and Jafr. Since then there has been a steadily drier climate, with at least one short humid phase during historical times, as reflected by widespread alleviation and covering of Roman and early Islamic sites. The Romans and Nabataeans in fact curtailed erosion from hillslopes by water harvesting methods which stopped soil and water in lower lying areas. The present trend is one of down cutting by wadis into the alluvium, with continued strippin of soil off hillslopes.

Against this background of long term climatic change has to be considered the effects of man on the ladscape. It is without doubt that man and his livestock have been the dominant factors in desertification since Roman times. In the Highland zone the destruction of natural forest cover, expansion of farmland and intensity of grazing pressures have been increasing over many centuries.

In the steppe zone, livestock grazing by sheep and goats is beyond the capacity of the range they occupy and there is thus a steady degradation of the land. The expansion of arable farming onto these lands is generally accompanied by very poor results and often crop failure.

In the desert region the processes of wind and water erosion are probably much the same since prehistorc times. This zone is thus already desertified. Of concern however are the dramatic changes brought on by irrigated agriculture and subsequent desertification trends on these improved lands.

Suggested Remedies to Reduce Desertification in Jordan

In the desert zone the principal changes, as just mentioned, are from degradation of land under irrigation. In a number of areas, lands have gone out of production due to the effects of salinity and sodicity resulting from poor soil drainage and inherent soil salinity . The quantity and quality of irrigation water is also factors. Desertification here is serious and the problem requires sound management policies utilizing scarce water resource on the most suitable lands.

In the steppe zone, the continued ploughing up of soils for cereals (and also just for confirming land ownership) is accompanied often by crop failure. The natural vegetation is generally destroyed during ploughing, and replaced by unpalatable species. Soil structure is also seriously affected by pulverizing by heavy tractor machinery. These planted cereal lands often provide only a limited harvest, and often are left for grazing. The latter could be attributed as a benefit, but alternative methods of range improvement are more desirable. In the steppe zone, there is a very high pressure on grazing and the vegetation cover is badly degraded, even where it is not disturbed or destroyed by ploughing. The problem has been known for decades and is steadily increasing. For desertification to be reduced, and even halted in the long term, a number of fundamental issues have to be met head on. These include prohibiting ploughing in the steppe zone, reducing the numbers of livestock units and controlling grazing. These will be difficult measures to entroduce and mantain over the whole steppe zone.

In the Highland zone, there remain a number of important areas of natural forest. These greatly assist in maintaining recharge to the deep aquifers and reducing run-off and erosion on hillslopes. At the same time, a strict control must be made to prohibit grazing within forested areas. Consideration should also be given in the non forested areas to controlling grazing so that, at least, there is some regeneration of vegetation on steep slopes susceptible to erosion. On farm lands conservation techniques need to be mantained and developed, such as contour ploughing, the use of suitable farm machinery and expansion of water harvesting methods.

Present Surveying and Monitoring Methods in Desertification Control

In Jordan, monitoring of desertification is being carried out in the Department of Forestry of the Ministry of Agriculture on several projects. An overall study of the soils of Jordan is being carried out by British consultants. In this project, assessments of erosion, landscape change, desertification trends and conservation measures necessary for improving land quality and usage are being made for soil landscapes over the whole of Jordan. It is to be hoped that these findings will help sound policy decisions in the future.

In this and related studies, the use of satellite imagery and aerial photography of different dates is in wide use. The comparison of older and recent photography and imagery is enabling calculations to be made that show significant trands in desertification. Whilst the satellite imagery provides fairly detailed views of large areas, the role of conventional aerial photography is still important in, for example, the detailed planning or conservation works of individual catchmants.

Other technical assistance projects are being undertaken within the Ministry of Agriculture that are leading to improved farming caonditions and afforestation of steep lands. These measures are helping to reduce desertification at regional and farmer levels.

References

D.J. Burdon, Handbook of the Geology of Jordan, Amman, Jordan 1959

B.P. Birch, Desertification in Eastern Jordan, Dept. of Geography,

University of Southampton UK 1974

THE IRAQI EXPERIENCE IN COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND ITS IMPACTS

Presented by: Dr. Fadel 'Ali El Faragi, Chief of the Division of Desertification Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation

INTRODUCTION

The problem of desertification is the most important problem besetting Iraq. It has several consequences:

i. loss of productive lands and their conversion to barren lands;

ii. increase in the surface of sand dunes in addition to the their mounting negative effects;

iii. diminishing forms of biota;

iv. increase in air pollution and sand movement, and

v. increasing pressure on groundwater.

In Iraq, desertified areas or areas subject to desertification are estimated to exceed 92% of total surface area. Desertification in Iraq can be classified into various categories according to its intensity and the areas affected by it . They are indicated in the following table:

(click her to view table)

This table reveals that 92,5% of the total Iraqi area is subject to one or two kinds of desertification, with varying degrees of intensity. Since 1981, the percentage has increased especially since military operations damaged both soil and plants and had other negative consequences detrimental to the environment.

MECHANISMS CAUSING DESERTIFICATION

Water and Wind Erosion

93% of Iraqi lands are affected by water and wind erosion (El-Ta'ei 1984). The following table indicates the areas affected by wind erosion.

Lands Affected by Wind Erosion
(area, intensity and percentage)

Deterioration in Soil Composition

Desertification takes various forms which can be seen in deteriorating soil composition. They are as follows:

i. A hardened surface crust that limits growth and diminishes soil permeability;

ii. A 'ploughed' layer formed due to the plough's pressure at a specific depth and for a long period, obstructing root growth of plants and consequently causing soil erosion; and

iii. Increasing pressures on surface soils due to the use of heavy agricultural machinery, thereby decreasing its productivity.

Salinization

Salinization of agricultural lands has become acute in Iraq due to an irrational use of water, as well as poor irrigation and drainage networks. This has led to a rise in ground water, on salt accumulation in soils. Thus, the plains area, renowned for the fertility of its lands, turned into salinized land . Productivity in large areas of the nation fell nearly to zero. It is estimated that about 100 thousand dunums per year suffer from salinization.

Waterlogging

The level of ground water can rise while the soil surface settles, due to unregulated irrigation, to low-lying ground, or to a shortage of drainage networks. More than half of the irrigated agricultural lands in Iraq are estimated to be affected either by salinization or waterlogging.

CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION IN IRAQ

i. The harshness of Iraqi's climate. It is equatorial and arid, characterized by hot summers, cold winters and low rainfall which reaches 40 millimetres in the centre, and south of Iraq and 1200 millimetres in mountain areas. Temperature varies form 51 celsius in the summer to 5 celsius in the winter. Relative humidity can be up to 5% on very dry days, causing an increase in evaporation that can exceed by twenty to forty times the annual rainfall in the southern plains and the desert hills;

ii. Increasing population pressures on biota;

iii. Inappropriate land use practices due to mounting population pressures;

iv. Degradation of pastures; which constitute about 70-75% of Iraq's total area, resulting from the following factors:

- Overgrazing

- Spontaneous grazing

- Woodcutting and uprooting of shrubs.

- Cultivation of crops in pasture areas, which degrades plant cover without ever attaining economic productivity. (A large, important variety of plants is thus adversely affected in the western desert, becoming subject to wind erosion);

v. Inappropriate use of water for irrigation purposes, causing the soil to be saturated with water; a high evaporation rate from the soil surface has also led to salt accumulation in the soil, thus increasing areas unsuitable for agriculture;

vi. A worsening of soil salinity due to an increase on ground water in agricultural lands as there are no drainage networks;

vii. Forest degradation resulting from excessive woodcutting, overgrazing and fires; which has all led to deteriorating plant cover in the forests of the north of Iraq. This has in turn increased water erosion causing the fertile layer of the soil to disappear. Furthermore, it has a negative impact on the stocking capacity of dams and the operational efficiency of irrigation works (be they reservoirs, dams or dykes) and increases maintenance costs.

viii. Fuel scarcity increasing need for firewood has led to an excessive cutting of trees and shrubs which were once used as green belts, both inside and outside of Iraqi cities. This has undoubtedly caused environmental degradation.

THE PROBLEM OF SAND DUNES

The phenomenon of sand dunes is considered to be one of the most dangerous consequences of desertification, due to its negative impact on every vital aspect of life.

Sand dunes are found in the centre and south of Iraq. They are concentrated around three major areas which are the following:

i. The region of Beiji and El'Ayeth: Sands in this region are real sands which can be easily stabilized in view of their special traits. Dry land agriculture in this area is possible because its sands can hold moisture.

ii. The region lying between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, including the provinces of Wasit, Zi Qar El-Qadeseya and El-Mouthanna. Sands there are false sands requiring strenuous efforts to reduce their dangers and achieve their stabilization.

iii. The sand strip which exists west of the Euphrates, from El Karbalaa to El-Qubair in the south. These sands are mixed; some are false and others are real according to their origin. This area, which has plants, needs to be protected against grazing. Apart from the above-mentioned areas, a few disparate areas, if left unprotected, shall increase in size with the passage of time, at the expense of agricultural lands.

Major Projects Aimed at Halting Sand Movement

The Saddam river project

This project covers the provinces of Wasit, Zi Qar and El-Qadeseya. The drainage network of El-Gharraf El-Kabir has been protected against sand movement through the adoption of mechanical and biological methods over an area of 120,000 dunums. This region, characterized by moving sand dunes, has been turned into agricultural and forest lands. Last year, an extensive program was initiated to protect the Saddam river against moving sands, which can bury it altogether for a distance exceeding 100 Km.

The Quickway Road

This road passes through sand fields posing a great threat and impeding work in the provinces of Wasit, Zi Qar, Basra and Al-Anbar. Sand accumulation is concentrated in the provinces of Basra, El-Muthanna and Zi Qar, both in the openings of rainfall drains and in the road; causing an increase in maintenance costs and a high incidence of unfortunate accidents.

Railroads

Railroads can be affected in two regions:

i. The Baghdad - Mosul railroad in the Beiji region. (This problem has been resolved using dry- land agriculture by planting tamarisk. Thus the dangers of sand movement have been halted there); and

ii. The Nasereya-Basra rail road in the regions of Laqit, Ghoubaisha, Gazaer and Artawi. (Due to northwest winds, sands move towards the railroad, obstructing trains and causing unfortunate accidents. Large sums of money have been earmarked to root out this threat).

Main and secondary roads

A large number of roads in the centre and south of Iraq are affected by sand movement, causing unfortunate accidents. Large sums of money are spent on continuous maintenance, which is carried out to remove accumulated sand from roads, the aim being to facilitate traffic flow and avoid accidents.

Agricultural projects

Irrigation and drainage canals, as well as reclaimed agricultural lands, are all covered with sands due to sand movement and lack of use.

Efforts to Reduce the Danger of Sand Movement

The Division of Desertification Control within the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation is directly responsible for the reduction of threats posed by sand movement. It is involved in the following activities:

i. The protection of the public estuary project, in its first phase, stabilized sand movement for a distance exceeding 70 Km. Thus, an area of 120,000 dunums benefited from measures aimed at sand stabilization. The principal aim is the development of plant cover which makes dune stabilization last. As mentioned, the Saddam river was protected against the dangers of moving sands for a distance exceeding 100 Km with sand dunes on both banks stabilized by mechanical methods (mud covering). Furthermore, 2,5 million seedlings of drought salt-resistant trees and shrubs of high forage value were planted after being irrigated. Thus, sand dune lands were turned into agricultural lands estimated at 250,000 dunums. Work is still being pursued to eradicate this problem, once and for all, in the region.

ii. Large sums of money have been earmarked for the initiation of work on the protection of the Basra-Nasereya railroad against the onslaught of sand, the problem being that sand has hindered the flow of trains, causing unfortunate accidents.

iii. As previously mentioned, the Quickway Road has been adversely affected by sand movement from various directions. The Division collaborates with the Ministry of Housing and Reconstruction on studying this problem so as to find appropriate solutions.

iv. The Baghdad - Mosul railroad in the Beiji region is also affected by sand movement. Dry- land cultivation of tamarisk has been used to stabilize sand dunes.

v. Other bodies collaborate with the Division of Desertification Control so as to stop the threat posed by sand movement.

Methods Used to Halt Sand Movement

Two complementary methods in sand dune stabilization are usually used, as their common aim is to restore plant cover. They are:

Mechanical methods

Windbreaks slow down wind speeds which will diminish erosion at first. When wind is slowed down, earth carried by the wind settles in front of the windbreaks. Thus, protection is ensured. In fact, mechanical methods, and especially windbreaks, help in protecting topsoil against erosion besides enabling the growth of plant seeds as they are not carried away by the wind nor covered with earth.

There are various mechanical methods used in this area. They differ according to the region in question, and the availability of raw materials and manpower. Empty barrels and twigs of dried plants are used as windbreaks in different forms adapted to windspeed and direction. In Iraq, there are other successful methods in use such as earth mounds (whose heights vary between 2 to 3 metres), 500 metres away from each other. In addition, bulldozers and shovels are used to cover sand dunes with heavy soil at a depth between 20 to 30 cm. This heavy soil does not break down even when there is precipitation, thus encouraging plant growth. Oil derived substances can also be used instead of heavy soil, when available, though their quality is somewhat inferior to heavy soil.

Biological methods

Biological methods of sand dunes stabilization are the most durable. They encourage growth of plant cover and the cultivation of shrubs and trees which are best suited to the region. It is preferable to choose the best shrubs and trees to be cultivated in order to ensure the success of this method. Permanent stabilization of sand dunes can be thus achieved. Windbreaks are cultivated at specific distances with plant cover grown between them. This plant cover does not allow any room for wind erosion; consequently, everything else is protected.

IRAQI FORESTS

Natural forests in Iraq constitute about 60% of mountainous regions. Most trees are oak trees, except in Zawiteh and Atrush in Dohuk province where pine trees are widespread. Forests are an important natural resource due to their many uses and benefits, be they health, social or economic. Tree felling and overgrazing in forests have played a major role in desertification. As water erosion becomes acute, insects, birds and land animals become extinct in general. This has had a negative impact on the environment with a worsening of the desertification problem.

Forests in Iraq used to cover all mountain areas in the north and the north-east. In 1970, forests covered 1,851 million hectares but in 1978, they only covered 1,5 million hectares. What can be seen nowadays is only disparate forests of oak trees in the most remote areas.

Forest degradation in Iraq can be due to the following:

i. Unregulated, excessive and extensive tree felling in forests;

ii. Shifting agriculture;

iii. Overgrazing on forest lands;

iv. Forest fires;

v. Diseased and insect ridden trees; and

vi. Poor environmental awareness of the importance of natural resources, leading to forest degradation;

PASTURES IN IRAQ

Pastures account for 75% of Iraq's total surface area. They have plant cover although deserts cover about 83,5 million dunums. Pastures are thus considered to be the sole major source of forage for cattle in Iraq. Pastures have deteriorated in both desert areas and in the western desert, causing plant degradation and a worsening of the wind erosion problem. The causes are the following:

i. Early overgrazing without due account to the capacity of pastures;

ii. Cutting and uprooting of forage plants for fuel purposes;

iii. Exploitation of pasture lands for agricultural purposes by cultivating lands where average rainfall is below 200 millimetres/year;

iv. Unregulated distribution of water resources causing cattle concentration in areas where water is available, with negative impact on plant covers.

v. Lack of competance with technical means and guidelines regarding water harvesting and distribution; and

vi. The high price of soy beans a constituent of concentrated fodder, which now exceeds US$26.000 dollars per ton.

MEASURES ADOPTED TO CONTROL DESERTIFICATION

The Revolutionary Council has adopted long needed measures for the formulation of scientific programs and plans for optimal use of natural resources in Iraq. This is in response to the growing acuity of desertification as a problem. Its negative impact has become widely known as seen in the deterioration of plant cover and the erosion of soil in many parts of Iraq. Desertification also means the formation of sand dunes, whose negative consequences can be observed, and soil salinity.

The measures adopted are as follows:

i. Delimiting the borders of pastures according to the rainfall rate which varies between 200 and 250 millimetres per year. In addition, turning agricultural land into pasture should be prohibited.

ii. Creating desert oases in the western desert, revolving around different axes and ecosystems so as to provide incentives to nomadic bedouins in the form of water supply and work opportunities. Ground water under such a programme would be exploited to irrigate drought resistant trees, forage shrubs as and other trees of economic value, such as olive and pistachio trees. Already, 5000 hectares have benefited from this measure. An extensive programme aimed at creating oases is under consideration so as to cover all regions of the western Sahara.

iii. Constructing small dams and reservoirs in valleys.

iv. Completing all phases of the Saddam river project. It is this project that shall rid agricultural lands in this region of salinity problems in the future.

v. Establishing at the end of 1990 a division on combating desertification within the Public authority for irrigation projects and reclamation to be in charge of the following activities:

- Fixing sand dune;

- Cultivating plant cover;

- Cultivating drought and salinity resistant trees and fodder shrubs; and

- Creating oases in the desert.

For sand dune fixation, the Division of Desertification Control executes the following projects:

i. The project on Saddam river protects against moving sands. More than 100 Km of the Saddam river, and the public estuary previously mentioned, suffer from moving sands, decreasing operational efficiency and increasing costs of upkeep and maintenance. The adoption of both mechanical methods such as mud layering of dunes, and biological methods, such as cultivating plant cover and tree planting, help in fixing sand dunes. Thus, most sand dunes on both sides of the river were stabilized at a depth of 1 Km, covering an area beyond 100 Km. More than 2,5 million seedlings of drought and salinity resistant trees and shrubs were cultivated, including tamarisk and musk, whose irrigation is with saline and fresh water.

ii. It is known that Zi Qar and Basra are affected by moving sands over a distance of 40 Km. This project aims at sand dune fixation and tree planting on both sides of the railroad.

iii. As for tree and forage shrub cultivation, the Division carries out a programme for the production of drought and salinity resistant seedlings of high forage value. More than one million seedlings are to be produced every year.

iv. The project of the desert oases envisages four artificial oases in different ecosystems through which various services, including water supply, shall be provided to cattle breeders. Trees and forage shrubs shall also be cultivated in the western Desert.

v. To understand the true nature of the problem of sand dunes, a study on this subject in under preparation by a specialized team from Baghdad University. Their research is based on space photographs and field tours so as to find out sand dune location and origin, in addition to their consequences and their fixation.

vi. The Public authority for forests and industrial products was set up in 1989, to cover the needs of Iraqi manufacturers for industrial wood, as well as to cultivate large plots of land with eucalyptus and bitter orange trees. Another purpose was to carry out tree experiments that can be used in industry. Combating desertification is enhanced through the above-mentioned activities.

The Impact of Military Activities in Iraq

i. Military activities in all forms, be they bombing, building trenches, or the use of heavy machinery have damaged the surface layer of soil in all parts of Iraq and especially in its desert areas. Severe, continuous sand storms, unknown in previous years, have caused wind erosion and the formation of moving sand dunes, which in turn speeded the process of desertification.

ii. The destruction of sites for electricity generation has halted stations which pump water from secondary drains to main drains. This has caused a rise in the level of water and the restoration of salinity.

iii. Due to fuel scarcity, citizens were forced to fell trees for household purposes. This has caused the uprooting of trees in many provinces in Iraq, which in turn had a negative impact on the environment.

iv. Diseases and insects have spread widely in the biota due to a lack of spraying planes.

v. Plant cover in the desert, which has grown over the years, was damaged. This plant cover cannot be restored without launching scientific programmes on a wide-scale.

Bibliography

F. Hassan Hadi El Ta'ei: "The reality of desertification in Iraq and means of addressing it". First Arab Symposium on sand dune fixation and combating desertification, Baghdad, 1984

'Abd el Karim Toma: "Desertification in Iraq" First Scientific Conference on desertification/ UNEP - Nairobi

Fadel 'Ali El-Faragi: "Sand dunes and their Consequences," 1989

THE INDIAN EXPERIENCE IN COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND ITS IMPACTS

Presented by : Mr. Narayan Singil, India High Commission, Nairobi

INTRODUCTION

About 10% of the 329 million hectares of land area in India is arid, having a CVP index below 25. This zone is located in the Western Region. Rajasthan accounts for 61% and 20% is located in the adjoining state of Gujarat. Cold deserts located in the High Himalayas of the North- West account for the rest. Semi-arid areas with a CVP index between 25 and 100 cover an additional 30.56% of the area and are located in 127 districts in 10 states.

There is a well-defined desert region consisting of the great desert and the little desert. The great desert extends from the Rann of Kutch beyond the Luni river northwards. The little desert is located between Jodhpur and Jaisalmer and the two are divided by a zone of sterile rocky land cut up by limestone ridges.

There is evidence to prove that the arid area once had dense forest cover. Large-scale migration through the North-Western Himalayan passes resulted in clearance of natural vegetation for settled agriculture. As arid areas are located on routes of migration, the delicate balance of water and nutrient recycling was lost with the indiscriminate spread of agriculture which started around 3,000 years ago. The river "Saraswati" of Indian mythology vanished altogether while other rivers merged into the sand dunes.

The semi-arid regions abutting the arid zone on the North and North-East have a better water regime as a number of perennial rivers fed by Himalayan snow traverse the area. A well-knit irrigation system makes the area the most productive part of the country. In the East and South, however, agriculture is mainly rainfed, particularly in the plateau region. Periodic cycles of drought due to failure of monsoon rains are a common feature.

NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY

In the National Conservation Strategy, particular attention has been paid to tackling such areas. The strategy, inter-alia, includes the following:

Land and Water

i. Classification zoning and apportionment of land for designated uses;

ii. enactment of laws for appropriate land use to protect soil from erosion, pollution and degradation;

iii. protection of land near water bodies and prevention of construction thereupon;

iv. micro level planning to develop appropriate methodologies and implementation of plan;

v. measures against runoff losses and wind erosion;

vi. development of suitable agro-silvipastural techniques;

vii. building up of a network for assessment and monitoring of soil and water quality;

viii. measures for water conservation, recycling and optimal conjunctive use of surface and ground water;

ix. encouragement to and improvement in traditional methods of rain water harvesting; and

x. control and abatement of pollution of water bodies.

Atmosphere

i. use of clean technologies;

ii. raising of green belts; and

iii. development of coping mechanisms for future climatic changes.

Biodiversity

i. conservation through a network of protected areas;

ii. eco-development of fringe area populations;

iii. conservation of micro-fauna and micro-flora which help reclamation of wasteland;

iv. protection of domesticated species of plants and animals;

v. maintenance of corridors between protected areas; and

vi. discouragement to monoculture and introduction of exotic species without adequate investigations.

Biomass

i. association of local people in conservation effort;

ii. raising of fuelwood species and provision of alternative fuels; and

iii. increased production of fodder and grasses.

Research activities pertaining to various aspects of arid zones are being conducted in the Central Arid Zone Research Institute. The majority of the activities of the institute are oriented towards agriculture and soil conservation. The Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur, was established in 1988 under the auspices of Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) with the prime objective of carrying out research priority areas of the institute including sand-dune stabilization, afforestation of arid saline lands, appropriate land use systems, silviculture of important shrubs and trees with emphasis on selection and tree improvement, and vegetative propagation. Some important studies that have been conducted including

i. identification of species most suitable for restricting the movement of sand-dunes and checking the advance of desert;

ii. study of practices in the establishment of plantations in arid and semi-arid areas;

iii. investigation of the influence of farm yard manure and nitrogen and potassium fertilisers on establishment and growth of Prosopis Cineraria and Tecomella undulata;

iv. irrigation water management in forestry plantations in the IGNP command area of the Indian Desert; and

v. combined production systems (Agri-silvi-pastoral) in arid regions.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STRATEGY

Specific programmes have been chalked out to implement the strategy in these areas. These are:

Desert Development Programme

The Desert Development Programme (DDP) was initiated in 1977-78. It covers hot desert regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana as well as cold desert areas in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. It is operative in 131 blocks of 21 districts in 5 States.

The objectives of the programme include controlling the process of desertification, mitigating the effects of drought, restoring the ecological balance in the affected areas and raising productivity of land, water, livestock and human resources. At least 75% of the allocation is earmarked for activities which would contribute towards combating the process of desertification. The proportionate weights assigned to sectoral activities in this programme are as follows:

Sector.................................................................................Proportionate Weight

Land development, land shaping............................................................15%

Water resources development...............................................................20%

Afforestation and pasture development..................................................40%

Other activities.....................................................................................15%

Project administration...........................................................................10%

The programme is implemented with 100% central government assistance. The Programme Evaluation Organization of the Planning Commission has been entrusted with the task of evaluating this programme in order to assess its impact on the control of desertification, on improvements in productivity and on incomes of the people living in these areas.

From 1990 to 1993, an amount of Rs 1485.0 million have been spent under the scheme, developing an area of 90,412 ha. (1 USD = approximately RS 32)

Drought Prone Area Programme

The Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) was launched in 1973 in arid and semi-arid areas with poor natural resources endowments. The objective was to promote more productive dryland agriculture by better soil and moisture conservation, more scientific use of water resources, afforestation and livestock development, through development of fodder and pasture resource, and in the long run to restore ecological balance. The DPAP covers 615 blocks of 91 districts in 13 States.

Given the objectives of the programme, the sectoral earmarking of funds are as follows:

Sector...............................................................................Percentage.Allocation

Land Shaping and soil conservation...........................................................30%

Afforestation and pasture development......................................................25%

Water resource development....................................................................20%

Other activities.........................................................................................15%

Project administration...............................................................................10%

This is a centrally sponsored scheme where the allocations are shared between the Central Government and States on a 50:50 basis. Preparation of development plans on watershed basis, participation of people in planning and implementation of the programme and development of effective liaison between research agencies and implementing agencies are some of the priority areas of the programme, which are being implemented in the Eight Plan with renewed thrust.

From 1990 to 1993, an amount of Rs 3066.9 million have been spent under the scheme, developing an area of 571,633 ha.

Integrated Wastelands Development Project

The basic objective of the Integrated Wastelands Development Project is to enable the start of pilot projects so as to ensure an integrated approach to wasteland development by taking up area- specific projects, taking into account land capabilities, site conditions and local needs and ultimately aiming to promote optimal land use for both ecological and socio-economic needs. The different types of problem lands for which projects are prepared under the scheme include saline/alkaline lands, arid/sandy areas, ravine areas and Aravallis. The activities taken up include soil and water conservation, afforestation, silvi-pasture activities and grazing management.

Afforestation Project for the Aravalli

The main objective of this project, being implemented with external assistance from Japan (OECF), is to check desertification and restore ecological status by reafforestation and also to increase the production of fuelwood, fodder, timber and non-wood forest products, to meet local needs. The project started in April 1992 and the project period is 5 years.

Rehabilitation of Common Lands in Aravallis (Haryana)

This project has been implemented since 1990, with external assistance from the European Economic Community, in the four southern districts of Haryana (Bhiwani, Mahendragarh, Gurgoan and Faridabad). The project outlay is Rs 480 million. It aims at environmental protection and restoration of green cover in the semi-arid Aravalli Hills and improvement of the living conditions of the local people by meeting their biomass needs.

In order to integrate activities aimed at combating desertification and to intensify these activities, it has been proposed to formulate a comprehensive plan for control of desertification under the National Forestry Action Programme, which is being prepared with FAO/UNDP assistance. The plan envisages evaluation of the present status of deserts in the country, assessment of the implementation of ongoing programmes for development of deserts and desert prone areas, formulation of broad policy guidelines and action plans for implementing programmes aimed at controlling desertification and development of strategies involving people in desert control through various means including adoption of appropriate measures related to research and training in desert control.

A word of caution needs to be given at this stage. Conversion of all arid ecosystems to irrigated use will result in loss of valuable biodiversity. Laciurus sindicus, a grass that is highly nutritious and can grow with one shower of around 10 mm can not grow under humid conditions. Prosopis spicigera has been recognized by all as indispensable for arid land agriculture and where would the ecosystem be without the great Indian Bustard. The solution lies in integrating all forms of land use practices to conserve water and soil. Our experience has been that construction of simple water- harvesting structures and encouragement to natural regeneration brings back vegetative cover. Soil moisture regimes improve after that and water flow in streams resumes. We agree that trees and grasses are very important in control of desertification.

India has built up some degree of expertise in matters that could be considered relevant to desertification. These include:

i. Long-range weather forecasting;

ii. Remote sensing;

iii. Research in arid zone agriculture, forestry and pastures; and

iv. Dry land farming.

THE IRANIAN EXPERIENCE IN COMBATING DESERTIFICATION

Presented by: Mr. Mohammad Reza Djabbari, Representative of the the Islamic Republic of Iran

The central plateau of Iran is one of the most renowned drylands of the world. With a total land area of about 165 million hectares, the country is located in the south west of Asia and in the dry belt of the world. 80% of Iran's total land area has an arid or semi-arid climate and is thus vulnerable to desertification. The average annual rainfall in Iran's deserts is less than 50 mm and the country's average annual rainfall is approximately 230mm. Deserts and desertified lands account for 34 million hectares of Iran's total land area, out of which 12 million hectares are sandy or covered by shifting sand-dunes.

In spite of the obvious role of environmental factors, climate change and lack of sufficient rainfall, in some cases, it is human activities which lead to land degradation and the advancement of deserts. Land degradation and desertification in Iran have accelerated during recent decades due to the following factors:

i. Population has doubled during the last 20 years. The need for more agricultural and pastoral products has forced people to use land extensively or to convert forests and rangelands to cultivated land, without any consideration for the real potential and capacity of such land.

ii. Over-grazing and misuse of rangelands are common.

iii. Over use of wood and plants as fuel for household cooking and heating, as well as irregular and uncoordinated exploitation of water resources, contribute further to land degradation.

iv. Refugees have degraded 1.2 million hectares of natural resources to meet their needs for fuel, farming and breeding.

The policies and programs of the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran to rehabilitate and develop renewable natural resources, with special consideration for desertification control, are as follows:

i. Use of the mass media and other means to increase public awareness about the importance of renewable natural resources and the dangers of desertification;

ii. Acceleration of socio-economic development in rural areas so as to prevent the migration of subsistence farmers and pastoralists to major cities and urban centers;

iii. Protection of the environment and restoration of ecological stability;

iv. Rehabilitation and reclamation of degraded land;

v. Industrial development using environmental sound technology;

vi. Active demographic policies, which have decreased the population growth rate from 3.17% to 2.7%;

vii. Sand dune stabilization to minimize negative effects on farm land, residential areas, strategic areas, roads and other valuable economic infrastructure; and

viii. Encouragment of popular participation in decision-making and implementation processe.

Shifting sand dunes are a form of desertification which poses a real threat to Iranian society. Damage associated with sand dune encroachment increases annually. The first truly serious effort to control shifting sand dunes was initiated in 1965, initially involving 100 hectares of land. Today, such efforts have gown in scope and dimension so that sand-dune stabilization projects and anti- desertification programs cover about a million hectares annually.

Innovative measures of dune stabilization include biological, mechanical and chemical procedures and methods, including the planting of seedlings, seeding, the establishment of palisades and the application of petroleum mulch. More than 4 million hectares of Iran's desertified and unproductive lands have been reclaimed until now. A highlight of the current phase of these efforts is a National Plan of Action which began in 1992 and which envisages reclamation and sand-dune stabilization of 10 million hectares of degraded land. Iranian activities in the field of sand dune stabilization, and in combating desertification for more than 28 years, have led to a remarkable accumulation of experience and technical expertise.

Desertification is a matter of global concern not limited to specific geographical regions. The Islamic Republic of Iran has actively co-operated with those countries and international agencies interested in mutual cooperation, thus underscoring Iran's commitments in forging a global coalition against environmental degradation, particularly that of desertification. Some key international activities undertaken by the Islamic Republic of Iran in this field include convening international conferences, hosting regional meetings in cooperation with ESCAP, UNEP and FAO, and trilateral cooperation (Iran, UNHCR and IFAD) to rehabilitate desertified regions with Afghan refugee settlements. Finally, planning for the establishement of a Project Office for Desertification Control sponsored by ESCAP and UNEP in the Islamic Republic of Iran is in its final stages.

As indicated earlier, Iran's long efforts in the control of desertification, and in sand-dune stabilization, have afforded Iran relative strong expertise and experience, which we desire to share with countries where similar conditions prevail. Equally, we are aware of the global dimension of this struggle and seek mutually beneficial cooperation with governments, organizations and institutions which can enrich our expertise and experience in the field of desertification control and sand-dune stabilization.

(Click here to view the second part of Part V)