Risk mitigation measures

COVID-19 is a defining moment for strengthening drought resilience of society and managing ecosystems more sustainably. Both recent and historical experiences indicate that disease outbreaks very often follow extreme weather events. Drought, combined with other ecosystem changes such as habitat degradation, preceded the COVID-19 outbreak and has been associated with many other types of epidemics in the past. This paper highlights that the interactions between human, ecosystems and ecology often govern drought-linked disease. Factoring these interactions and their impacts on vulnerable communities and their environment is important for drought preparedness, resilience, and recovery. It also calls for increased investments and defines important steps for government and international agencies in responding to post COVID-19 period and in building back better for a more drought-resilient society and ecosystems. These steps require cross-sectoral, inter-disciplinary cooperation that responds to and addresses the underlying causes behind future disease outbreaks for a healthy living.

With drought conditions official, you may be wondering whether or not to bother with a food garden in a drought year. There are water-wise actions that can be employed for a successful harvest. Sonoma County Master Gardeners have produced several documents that address gardening under drought conditions in detail. 

The UNCCD-SPI technical report “Realising the Carbon Benefits of Sustainable Land Management Practices: Guidelines for Estimation of Soil Organic Carbon in the Context of Land Degradation” provides decision guidance for the estimation of soil organic carbon (SOC) in support of appropriate deployment of sustainable land management (SLM) technologies, in order to maintain or increase carbon in the soil and contribute to the achievement of land degradation neutrality (LDN). The report was produced to support the need for policy tools that provide guidance on harmonized methods for accurate estimations of changes in soil (SOC) stocks resulting from SLM interventions.

The report provides a framework and a set of decision trees to help countries i) identify suitable and region-specific SLM practices and approaches to maintain or enhance SOC stocks, and ii) estimate and monitor SOC for land use planning and for monitoring LDN. It also provides a comparative list of tools and models for SOC assessment and selection for SLM approaches and technologies, including approaches for monitoring changes in SOC stocks from local to national scales.

The primary instrument for avoiding and reducing degradation is the application of sustainable land management, (SLM) approaches, and technologies. Because of its multifunctional roles and its sensitivity to land management, soil organic carbon (SOC) is one of the three global indicators for LDN, so predicting and monitoring change in SOC is vital to achieving LDN targets.

The following decision trees will guide efforts to predict change in SOC under alternative SLM practices, and monitor SOC change in response to SLM interventions, and thereby support decision-makers to pursue the right SLM interventions in the right locations, at the right time, at the right scale with the overall goal to increase or maintain SOC and improve soil health in support of LDN achievement.

Management instruments are specific methods that enable decision makers to make rational and informed choices when it comes to water management and to tailor their actions to specific situations. Good water governance, according to IWRM principles brings together perspectives and knowledge from different domains. Consequently, the instruments presented here are based on a variety of disciplines such as hydrology, hydraulics, environmental sciences, system engineering, legal sciences, sociology, and economics.

It is often said that the current water crisis is mainly a crisis of governance, much more than a crisis of water shortage or water pollution per se. In the context of IWRM, governance is defined as the range of political, social, economic and administrative institutions that are in place (or need to be in place) to develop and manage water resources in sustainable manners. This section identifies four institutional roles that must be fulfilled for water governance systems to achieve sound IWRM practices: B1 – Regulation and Enforcement; B2 – Water Supply and Sanitation Services; B3 – Coordination and Facilitation; and B4 – Capacity Building.

A proper enabling environment establishes the rights and assets of all stakeholders (individuals as well as public and private sector organizations and companies, women as well as men, the poor as well as the better off), while ensuring for environmental quality. The enabling environment essentially consists of “rules of the game” that are laid out as to achieve a sustainable balance between the social, economic and environmental needs for water. These rules can be defined by the use of: (1) Policies; (2) Legislative Frameworks; and (3) Financing and Investment Structures.

Guidelines and Background Documents for Development of National Drought Plan (Annex II). The assumption that negative impacts of drought have similar effects on both women and men has existed for a long time. However, it is now recognized that women and men are affected by drought differently, and that gender inequalities diminish women’s capacity to cope with drought. It has been acknowledged that women are important holders of drought-related adaptation and risk reduction knowledge and skills. Therefore, there is an urgent need to adopt gender-responsive approaches in drought preparedness policy making and programming to enable the crucial role of women as actors in drought-risk management initiatives.

The Land-Drought Nexus: Enhancing the role of land-based interventions in drought mitigation and risk management (Chapter 3). D-SLM the conceptual framework presented by the SPI brings gender equality issues to the center of LDN. Unpacking the complexities of gender. It will enable a better understanding of how men and women are best able to cope with droughts in the developing world.

The objective of the technical report is to provide a comprehensive review of existing synthesis reports and primary literature in order to: (a) highlight the potential of land-based interventions to mitigate the effects of drought by increasing the resilience of ecosystems and the socioeconomic well-being of populations; and (b) provide guidance to support the adoption and implementation of land-based interventions for drought management and mitigation in the context of LDN. This is a planned contribution to the Work Program 2018-2019 of the UNCCD’s Science-Policy Interface (SPI).

The Global Water Partnership: Integrated Water Resources Management (GWP IWRM) ToolBox contains knowledge and learning about integrated water resources management.

The Tools and References are knowledge. The Case Studies are where the learning takes place (applying the Tools).

There are about 60 Tools: these are the key concepts that have to be addressed in managing water. IWRM is not a step-by-step process to success; the practitioner and the policy maker have to select the relevant mix and sequence of tools that have the best chance of working in a specific community or country.

Case Studies illustrate how the Tools work in real experience. The cases come from all over the world and offer lessons learned in a specific context.

References range from policy papers to training manuals to research documents to articles – an array of resources linked to specific Tools and Case Studies. GWP doesn’t have a monopoly on IWRM knowledge which is why References usually point to material provided by other organisations.

The overall goal of FAO’s actions on drought is to develop the capacity of drought-prone countries to increase societal resilience and enhance their drought responses and recovery capabilities to reduce the impacts of future drought events.

• Awareness creation to improve understanding among policy-makers and decision-makers of the importance of drought risk management; 
• The development of guidelines tailored for specific drought-prone regions and of other technical tools to facilitate the adoption of proactive drought management policies at the country level;
• Capacity development in drought policy through training at the regional and country levels;
• The provision of direct support to countries to implement proactive drought management policies through field projects;
• Building partnerships with specialized organizations and research centers as well as with country-level and regional networks of institutions concerned with drought to promote proactive drought policies and enhance country support;
• Carrying out studies to characterize drought and its management in different regions (FAO, 2019).

Drought mitigation, preparedness, and response comprise the appropriate measures and actions aimed at reducing the vulnerability to drought and reducing the impacts of droughts. The goal of the pillar on drought mitigation, preparedness and response is to determine appropriate mitigation and response actions aimed at risk reduction, the identification of appropriate triggers to phase in and phase out mitigation actions, particularly short-term actions, during drought onset and termination and, finally, to identify agencies or ministries or organizations to develop and implement mitigation actions.

A complete rainwater harvesting system in Kiribati allowed community members to have easy access to clean water and larger storage tanks permitted large amounts of water to be available during times of drought.

Application of irrigation water during drought-sensitive growth stages of a crop. Outside these periods, irrigation is limited or even unnecessary if rainfall provides a minimum supply of water. Water restriction is limited to drought-tolerant phenological stages, often the vegetative stages and the late ripening period.

Leaving crop residues in situ to cover the soil and reduce water loss from evaporation

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable membrane to remove pathogens (bacteria, viruses); agrochemicals, chloride, organic matter, industrial waste, chemicals, heavy metals, toxins, pesticides, minerals and particles from drinking water. An RO unit is a self-contained water treatment system.

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Raising public awareness means creating a campaign with a specific message on a particular issue

Water tanks are installed to collect rainwater andincrease the efficiency of water use/reduce potable water use in toilet flushing and irrigation. These approaches place a major emphasis on the improvement of sanitation facilities, access to safe and sufficient water for drinking, food preparation, hand washing, laundering, use of flush toilets, toilet and other cleaning, and watering the school gardens.

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Livestock rotation approach relies on grazing different types of animals on the same land in a carefully controlled pattern, which ideally will enhance the land they roam. With several different animals, the technique is sometimes called multi-species grazing. Destocking refers to reducing the animal stock during drought.

Land restoration or rehabilitation is the process of ecological restoration of a site to a natural landscape and habitat, safe for humans, wildlife, and plant communities

A range of methods are used to test water quality, which may either be laboratory-based assessments or field test kits. Laboratory-based assessments are required when accurate detection of specific compounds must be completed. These analyses require expensive equipment at central laboratories. Field kit tests offer a useful alternative that provides onsite water monitoring. These kits are generally used for basic analysis such as water temperature, transparency and pH.

SLM example from the WOCAT database

An insurance policy providing coverage for losses due to the death or injury of one's livestock

Sand dams are a simple, low-cost and low-maintenance, replicable rainwater harvesting technology. They provide a clean, local water supply for domestic and farming use and are suited to semi-arid areas of the world

Fog harvesting refers to the collection of water from fog using large pieces of vertical canvas to make the fog droplets flow down towards a trough under the canvas, known as a fog fence

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Dams, troughs or other built infrastructure to supply water to livestock to ensure they have sufficient water during drought.

Increases the recycling of water and nutrients, through the sustainable use of agricultural waste. Agricultural waste can also come from harvest and therefore transformed into biogas.

A solar-powered pump runs on electricity generated by photovoltaic panels or the radiated thermal energy available from collected sunlight as opposed to grid electricity or diesel run water pumps

Use local native plant species which will be more sutable to local climates as the major or supplementary feed source.

Women are often responsible for food processing and storage, collecting of water and firewood and for generating incomes for subsistence, managing available resources by using indigenous knowledge to secure food supplies for their households.

Modernisation and improvement in water supply infrastructure to repair and replace aging infrasrtucture that is leaking and inefficient

Rain water use and storage. Eco friendly sustainable agriculture. Develop waste land, sloppy land and forest land (control of erosion loss Kitchen gardens for nutritional security testing of SRI and mixed cropping). Soil conservation, land shaping, pasture development, vegetative bunding

Use livestock breeds that are able to survive with less water. May involve cross-breeding with local anmal species that are more tolerant to drought.

A small financial loan made to poverty-stricken individuals seeking to start their own business. This type of loan typically does not exceed a couple hundred dollars, so an impoverished individual can not solely depend on this type of loan to fund their business. Also called micro loan

Pump water back into depleted groundwater reserves or use natural recharge processes. Can be done using treated wastewater

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Store cut hay for times when grazing fodder is absent

Tracks changes in people's food security situations to alert the humanitarian community when a situation deteriorates to ensure that assistance can be provided in a timely and appropriate way

Consists in assessing the vulnerability of a society to drought which can depend on several factors such as population, technology, policy, social behavior, land use patterns, water use, economic development and diversity of economic base and cultural composition.The Disaster Risk Profiles are representations of information regarding a population, place or system’s exposure, sensitivity and resilience to given hazards that can be applied to DRM strategies in a district

SLM example from the WOCAT database

The health implications of drought are numerous and far reaching. Some drought-related health effects are experienced in the short-term and can be directly observed and measured. However, the slow rise or chronic nature of drought can result in longer term, indirect health implications that are not always easy to anticipate or monitor. There is still limited evidence on the health impacts of drough and more research is needed. The main health effects of drought include: nutrition-related, water-related disease, airborne and dust-related disease, vector borne disease and mental health.

Areas of rangeland and grazing systems are kept aside as reserves during periods of low fodder availability

Groundwater management means management of groundwater sub-basins to provide for multiple long-term benefits without resulting in or aggravating conditions that cause significant economic, social, or environmental impacts, such as long-term overdraft, land subsidence, or damage to ecosystems

Reclaimed or recycled water (also called wastewater reuse or water reclamation) is the process of converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes. Reuse may include irrigation of gardens andagricultural fields or replenishing surface water and groundwater (for example, groundwater recharge)

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids and gases from water. The goal is to produce water fit for human consumption (drinking water), The methods used include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon; chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Linear plantings of trees and shrubs in agriculrual systems, espcially intensively cropped land devoid of trees and shrubs

Improved water-saving technologies include sprinkler systems, micro and drip irrigation, flood irrigation andf urrow-basinirrigation. Small-scale irrigation is most successful when managed and controlled by farmers who have access to independent water sources, it is best suited for small-scale farmers seeking to optimize production by minimizing inputs and risks

Desalination is a process of removing dissolved salts from seawater to produce fresh water for consumption. There are two major types of desalination technologies around the world, namely membrane desalination and thermal desalination

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Hand hygiene is the cornerstone of infection control and reduces rates of healthcare associated infections. However, effective handwashing with soap requires reliable access to water supplies. However, more than three billion people do not have household-level access to piped water

Eearly maturing crop varieties can yield a positive harvest within three months of planting to protect farmers in case of low rainfall or drought

Water saving technologies in domestic and commercial setting include low flow taps and showerheads, water efficient appliances, low water use machinery. Water efficient technologies help reduce consumptive water use during times of water shortages

SLM example from the WOCAT database

An agrometeorological station uses the advanced remote data-acquisition unit (arQ) geared with multi-parameter weather sensors which can simultaneously measure wind speed speed and direction; air temperature; air humidity; air pressure, rain amount, duration and intensity, soil moisture and temperature, solar radiation, and sunshine duration. The station gets data from the sensor for transmission via SMS or satellite network.

Drought tolerant crops are species which can survive for long periods of time with little amounts or no water.

Implementing water meters and water monitoring systems to measure the extraction of water from surface water and ground water resources. Aim is measure consumption of water which is the first step to recognising the value of the water resource and reducing consumption.

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Consists of an artificial body placed in orbit round the earth which collects information or data by providing consistent observations at high spatial density with global coverage

Crop insurance refers to an insurance which insures farmers and crop producers against their loss of crops due to natural disasters, such as hail, drought and floods

Develop and implement water conservation education into school curricula at priamry and secondary levels.

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Applying appropriate rates of fertiliser given available soil water, rainfall and crop nutrient requirements

Put a price on water and create a market to turn water into a commodity with economic value

SLM example from the WOCAT database

Enhance the efficient use of water through improved management and advanced irrigationtechnologies

Cropping systems that do not distrurb (or till) the soil

Expand water storages such as dams by raising height of dam walls, adding storage tanks to exisiting rainwater harvesting infrastructure.

Develop new irrigation water systems to deliver water to crops in times of water shortages and stress

Adjustment of planting dates to minimise the effect of high temperature low rainfal conditions on key stages of plant phenology and plant development

Rain water harvesting is a technique for collection and storage of rain water in surface (storage tanks) or sub-surface aquifer before it is lost as surface runoff

SLM example from the WOCAT database