The land “footprint” of energy supply and use, referred to in SDG 15, is of particular interest. Currently, approximately 90 percent of global energy demand is met from non-renewable energy (mainly fossil), which leaves its footprint on land through resource extraction (e.g., coal mining), conversion (e.g., refineries, power plants) and their respective infrastructure (e.g., pipelines, fuel storage, transmission lines). Similarly, the development of renewable energy, such as biomass, geothermal, hydro, solar and wind, has land consequences, although these differ in scope and form.

High prices for energy and food pose immediate threats to human security, particularly among low-income and vulnerable populations in all economies and against a backdrop of post-pandemic inflation and limited fiscal capacity. These threats may also trigger cascading risks, which may combine with existing socio-economic and political stresses to spark unrest and even further conflict in other parts of the world. The potential for coincident price or supply shocks – including as a consequence of climate change – further amplifies the risk.