Changes in rainfall patterns, the increasing frequency and intensity of droughts and other extreme events have adversely impacted the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems, contributing to desertification and land degradation in many regions (6,18), and are consequently impacting current and future agricultural productivity (19) and food security. To close the loop, transforming food systems is among the most effective solutions to restore natural ecosystems and mitigate and adapt to climate change, through more sustainable agricultural practices, the transition to healthier and more sustainable diets, and the reduction of food loss and waste (6, 20, 21). It is therefore critical to restore food systems
from farm to fork, making this a core climate change strategy to achieve the SDGs.

More than five years since the global commitment to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,

# 690 million people lack sufficient food (1)
# and economic projections suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic may add an additional 83 to 132 million people to the ranks of the undernourished, as the outbreak has exacerbated the global food flaws and insufficiencies, impacting the most vulnerable populations.
# Meanwhile, 1.3 billion tons of food are wasted globally each year (2),
# utilizing 38% of total energy consumption in the global food system (3).
# Child and adult overweight and obesity are increasing in almost all countries, and on a global level the cost of a healthy diet is 60% higher than the cost of a nutrient adequate diet, and
# almost 5 times the cost of an energy sufficient diet.

High-income countries have the highest affordability figures of the healthy diets. Affordability is compromised especially in low- and middle-income countries, due to low productivity, insufficient diversification towards the production of horticultural products, legumes, small-scale fisheries, aquaculture, livestock and other nutritious food products, pre- and post-harvest losses, fiscal and trade policies. Reducing the cost of nutritious foods and increasing the affordability of healthy diets start with a reorientation of agricultural priorities towards more nutrition-sensitive food and agricultural production.

If the present food consumption patterns continue, diet-related costs due to mortality and non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are projected to exceed USD 1.3 trillion per year by 2030, while the cost of greenhouse gas emissions is estimated to reach more than USD 1.7 trillion per year by 2030 (5).

# Feeding the global population currently accounts for 21-37% of total net anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (6) and including more plant-based foods can help mitigate climate change.

# Food production is also responsible for 70% of freshwater withdrawals. Globally, this accentuates the vulnerability of 1.2 billion people who live in irrigated or rainfed areas affected by severe water shortages (2).

# Food choices are the most important factor undermining health and well-being, leading to 9.1 million premature deaths from cardiovascular diseases worldwide every year, which account for as much as 50% of all cardiovascular deaths.

This report has presented a new version of the Double Pyramid, designed to show the relationship between health and the climate impact of food. The Double Pyramid is intended to contribute to the shift towards sustainable and healthy diets that reverse the global syndemic of obesity, undernutrition, and climate change (286). A sustainable diet is a “code
for better consumption”, as we know that the capacity to produce food, the well-being of ecosystems and human health are inextricably linked (287) and is part of a much wider call to rethink consumption (288).

The tool has the ambition to inform policymakers, to foster the adoption of healthier and more sustainable dietary patterns at international, national, and local levels, while mitigating climate change, as well as supporting food and agriculture companies. The agri-food sector will play a crucial role and is urged to address the impacts of its products, services, and strategies on human well-being and the planet’s sustainability, and to support the achievement of the
SDGs (289). Furthermore, the Double Pyramid aims to serve an educational purpose, and to inspire communication and information campaigns for citizens and other targeted groups.