Land use change poses a significant threat to the biological and economic productivity of rangelands – the provisioning services on which pastoral livelihoods and food security depend – as well as their contribution to supporting, regulating and cultural services, from local to global scales. South American rangelands have supported a variety of indigenous livestock systems based on grazing, from the shearing of wild vicuñas and the herding of llamas and alpacas in the highlands, to the shepherding of sheep and goats in dryland areas.